Skip to main content
Download PDF

Maternal pre-pregnancy BMI, MTHFR polymorphisms, and the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes in pregnant women from South China: a retrospective cohort study

BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth volume 23, Article number: 295 (2023) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Increasing evidence suggests an association between maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (pre-BMI) and adverse pregnancy outcomes. However, the effects of methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) polymorphisms on these relationships require further investigation. This study aimed to investigate whether the relationship between pre-BMI and the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes was influenced by MTHFR gene polymorphisms.

Methods

A total of 5614 mother-fetus pairs were included in the study. The odds ratios (OR) of adverse pregnancy complications, including gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), gestational hypertension (GHT), cesarean delivery (CS), and premature rupture of membranes (PROM), were estimated using adjusted logistic regression models and subgroup analysis.

Results

Pregnant women with higher pre-BMI values were positively related to the risk of GDM, GHT, and CS. In the subgroup analysis, underweight BMI was associated with a decreased risk of CS and GDM in pregnant women with the MTHFR A1298C AA or C677T CC genotype, while overweight/obese BMI was associated with an increased risk of GDM and CS in different MTHFR variants. Moreover, pregnant women with MTHFR A1298C AC + CC or C667T CC were found to have an increased risk of GHT in the MTHFR A1298C AA or C667T CT + TT genotype. A remarkable association was observed between the obesity group with MTHFR A1298C AC + CC (OR = 6.49, CI: 2.67–15.79) and the overweight group with the C667T CC genotype (OR = 4.72, CI: 2.13–10.45).

Conclusions

MTHFR gene polymorphisms exert a modifying effect on the association between maternal pre-BMI and the risk of GHT, CS, and GDM. Pregnant women with a high pre-BMI with specific MTHFR genotypes should be considered for GHT development.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Adverse pregnancy outcomes, including gestational hypertension (GHT), gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), and cesarean section (CS), have received major public concern globally because of the increasing prevalence of overweight or obesity in women of reproductive age [1, 2]. Women with a history of adverse pregnancy complications and their offspring are at long-term risk of developing obesity, diabetes, hypertension, or other metabolic dysfunctions [3,4,5]. Therefore, it is important to understand the relationship between maternal conditions before pregnancy and pregnancy-related complications.

Studies from different populations have suggested that maternal weight status prior to pregnancy is a good predictor of pregnancy outcomes, and several studies have linked pre-pregnancy body mass index (pre-BMI) to adverse pregnancy complications [6,7,8]. Although no significant influence was suggested on infant neurocognitive development based on the Chinese BMI category, being overweight or obese before pregnancy was associated with an increased risk of GDM (odds ratio [OR] = 1.80, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.29–2.51) and CS (OR = 1.49, 95% CI: 1.07–2.06) [9]. According to a meta-analysis of European, North American, and Australian populations, higher pre-BMI was associated with higher risks of GHT and GDM [10]. These studies suggest that proper weight before pregnancy might decrease the risk of pregnancy complications.

There is increasing concern regarding whether genetic polymorphisms within lipid metabolism or nutritional factors in pregnant women are associated with the development of pregnancy outcomes [11]. Among them, methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) plays an important role in the enzymatic process for maintaining folate metabolism and homocysteine methylation, which are considered risk factors during pregnancy [12,13,14]. The C677T and A1298C variants in MTHFR are two common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), and these variants have also been associated with several pregnancy complications, but the results were different. For instance, a meta-analysis based on 51 studies found significant associations between the MTHFR C677T polymorphism and the risk of preeclampsia in TT genotype recessive models and the dominant genetic model [15]. A Chinese study reported that the MTHFR C677T variant might increase the risk of GDM owing to higher red blood cell folate levels in early pregnancy [16]. Additionally, genetic variation in MTHFR C677T was also related to overweight and obesity in Chinese women, and serum triglyceride levels in the MTHFR C677T TT genotype were higher than those in the C677T CC genotype [17].

Although the impact of being overweight or obese is considered strongly related to pregnancy-induced complications, the effect of genetic variations in MTHFR on these relationships remains unclear. Therefore, this study was performed to investigate the association between pre-BMI, MTHFR C677T and A1298C polymorphisms, and adverse pregnancy outcomes in pregnant Chinese women.

Materials and methods

Study population

In the present retrospective cohort study, we included pregnant women who had established regular prenatal records and intended to deliver at Guangdong Women and Children Hospital (Guangzhou, China) between January 2020 to December 2021, according to the following inclusion criteria: (1) > 18 years old, (2) singleton pregnancy, and (3) complete data on basic information. Pregnant women were excluded if they (1) had multiple pregnancies (n = 101), (2) had a diagnosis of diabetes before pregnancy (n = 81), or (3) had a diagnosis of hypertension before pregnancy (n = 55) (4) had undergone in vitro fertilization (n = 256), (5) had incomplete weight or height or MTHFR gene polymorphism records (n = 482). A total of 5614 mother-fetus pairs were included in this study (Supplementary Materials Figure S1). The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of Guangdong Women and Children Hospital. This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, revised in 1983, and the guidelines of the center’s institutional review board. All participants received details regarding the study and provided written informed consent.

Information on participants’ age, smoking habits, drinking habits, gravidity, parity, education level, delivery mode, weight, height, adverse pregnancy outcomes, and homocysteine levels was collected from the medical records of our hospital. The main outcomes were common adverse pregnancy complications as follows: (1) GDM (defined according to the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups and World Health Organization); (2) GHT, (diagnosed according to the International Society for the Study of Hypertension [18]); (3) CS; and (4) PROM. The pre-BMI was calculated as weight (kg)/height (m2). According to the Chinese BMI classification [19], participants were divided into four groups, namely, normal weight (BMI = 18.5–24.0 kg/m2), overweight (BMI = 24.0–28.0 kg/m2), obesity (BMI ≥ 28 kg/m2), and underweight (BMI < 18.5 kg/m2).

MTHFR gene polymorphisms

Blood samples were retrieved from the participants using vacuum tubes containing potassium salt of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid and stored at 4 °C. DNA extraction kits (Magen, Guangzhou, China) were used to extract genomic DNA using an automated nucleic acid extraction workstation (Hamilton, Sweden) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Genotypes for the MTHFR C677T and A1298C loci were determined using fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The forward and reverse primer sequences used in this study are listed in Supplementary Materials Table S1.

Statistical analysis

The baseline characteristics of the study participants are described. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation for continuous variables or as percentages for categorical variables. Continuous variables were compared using parametric methods for continuous data or non-parametric methods for categorical data. For adverse pregnancy outcomes, multiple logistic regression analyses were performed to estimate the OR and 95% CI according to the Chinese BMI standard and MTHFR gene polymorphism. Participants with a normal BMI, MTHFR A1298C AA genotype, or C677T CC genotype were used as the reference group. The potential covariates used in this regression model are based on relevant reports. GDM, PROM, and CS were adjusted for maternal age, education level, parity, and homocysteine level. Gestational age at delivery was further adjusted in the models with regard to GHT. Deviation from Hardy-Weinberg expectation (HWE) was calculated, and a P > 0.05 indicated that the two variants were in accordance with HWE. For subgroup analysis, the modification effect of MTHFR gene polymorphisms on the association of pre-BMI groups in relation to adverse pregnancy outcomes was evaluated after stratification by MTHFR A1298C or C667T dominant models. P for the interaction was assessed using the likelihood ratio test by introducing the multiplicative interaction terms of genotypes and BMI categories. All statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS 26.0 (Chicago, IL, USA), and two-sided P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

Study population

A total of 5614 mother-infant pairs were enrolled in our retrospective cohort study, and their detailed demographic characteristics are shown in Table 1. In this study, none of the mothers had a history of smoking or drinking during pregnancy, and data were not available. The average maternal age was 30.29 ± 4.19 years. Pre-pregnancy BMIs were grouped according to the Chinese BMI classification. There were 1103 women in the underweight group (19.7%), 4012 in the normal-weight group (71.5%), 386 in the overweight group (6.9%), and 113 in the obese group (2.0%). Most mothers were nulliparous (n = 3263, 58.1%), and 2049 (36.5%) women underwent CS. No significant differences in parity, gestational weeks, homocysteine, MTHFR C677T, or A1298C genotype were observed among the four pre-BMI groups. Additionally, 53.5% (n = 3005) were boys and 46.5% (n = 2609) were infants. Among them, 4.86% (n = 273) were preterm births. The mean weight, length, and gestational age at birth were 3192.3 ± 427.9 g, 49.5 ± 2.02 cm, and 39.2 ± 1.39 weeks, respectively.

Table 1 Clinical characteristics of the study population
Full size table

Association between maternal pre-BMI status and adverse pregnancy outcomes

The associations between the different pre-BMI groups and adverse pregnancy outcomes are presented in Table 2. The prevalence rates of GDM, GHT, CS, and PROM were 18.8%, 6.6%, 36.5%, and 24.1%, respectively. Based on the Chinese BMI classification, 3.2% of GDM cases (n = 34), 5.1% of GHT cases (n = 19), 3.0% of CS cases (n = 62), and 1.2% of PROM cases (n = 16) were included in the obese group, whereas the overweight group consisted of 11.6% of GDM cases (n = 122), 14.5% of GHT cases (n = 54), 9.4% of CS cases (n = 192), and 6.6% of PROM cases (n = 89). In the model adjusted for confounders, GDM, GHT, and CS were all positively associated with higher pre-BMI, whereas no significant association with PROM was suggested compared to the normal weight group. The ORs for overweight pregnant women were 1.73, 2.54, and 1.47 for GDM, GHT, and CS, respectively. Similarly, the risks in obese pregnant women were 2.13 times higher for GDM (P = 0.005), 3.53 times higher for GHT (P < 0.001), and 2.64 times higher for CS (P < 0.001) than for normal-weight pregnant women. Women who were underweight before pregnancy were less likely to experience GDM (OR = 0.72, 95% CI = 0.56–0.90), GHT (OR = 0.68, 95% CI = 0.46–0.99), and CS (OR = 0.66, 95% CI = 0.55–0.79).

Table 2 Association between maternal pre-BMI categories and adverse pregnancy outcomes
Full size table

Association between maternal MTHFR gene polymorphism and adverse pregnancy outcomes

In this study population, the frequencies of the MTHFR C677T genotypes were 57.8% for CC, 42.2% for CT, and 8.8% for TT. Additionally, the A1298C AA, AC, and CC genotypes had frequencies of 64.4%, 38.6%, and 5.8%, respectively. The minor allele frequencies were 23.1% for MTHFR A1298C and 27.5% for MTHFR C677T in the control group, and all polymorphisms were consistent with HWE (P for HWE = 0.921 for A1298C and P for HWE = 0.259 for C677T). We then analyzed the associations between MTHFR polymorphisms in different models or genotypes and adverse pregnancy outcomes (Supplementary Tables S2 and S3). According to the results of the adjusted regression models, no significant association was observed between MTHFR gene polymorphisms and GDM, GHT, CS, and PROM (all P > 0.05).

Association of pre-BMI and adverse pregnancy outcomes stratified by MTHFR A1298C or C677T dominant models

In the subgroup analysis, to explore the effects of genetic variations in MTHFR on the association between pre-BMI and pregnancy complications, we stratified pre-BMI into two subgroups according to the dominant model of MTHFR A1298C and C677T. (Tables 3 and 4). Although an interaction effect was suggested between pre-BMI and MTHFR A1298C AC + TT genotypes in PROM (P for interaction = 0.045), no statistical differences were observed between the genotypes.

Table 3 Association of pre-BMI and adverse pregnancy outcomes stratified by MTHFR A1298C dominant model
Full size table
Table 4 Association of pre-BMI and adverse pregnancy outcomes stratified by MTHFR C667T dominant model.
Full size table

For GDM, no significant association was observed in underweight pregnancy women in MTHFR A1298C dominant model, but a decreased risk of 0.59 (95% CI = 0.44–0.81, P = 0.016) was found in underweight pregnant women with the MTHFR C677T CC genotype. Pregnant women with a higher pre-BMI had a significantly higher risk of GDM, except for obese pregnant women with the A1298C AC + CC genotype and those with the MTHFR C677T CC genotype.

For GHT, we did not find a relationship between underweight and the two dominant models of MTHFR. Women who were overweight or obese were likely to experience GHT, and the highest odds ratio of GHT was observed in the obesity group for the A1298C AC + CC genotype (OR = 6.49, 95% CI = 2.67–15.79) and the C677T CC genotype (OR = 4.72, 95% CI = 2.13–10.45).

For CS, the effect direction and size were similar in the subgroup analysis, and the highest odds ratio for CS was observed in obese women with the A1298C AC + CC genotype (OR = 4.18, 95% CI = 1.75–9.99). Interestingly, an increased risk of 1.64 (95% CI = 1.17–2.30) for CS was observed in pregnant overweight women with A1298C AA genotype and 1.98 (95% CI = 1.38–2.85) in C677T CT + TT genotype.

Association of MTHFR A1298C or C677T dominant models and adverse pregnancy outcomes stratified by pre-BMI classification

For A1298C polymorphism, we found that pregnant women with normal weight and A1298C AC + CC genotype had an increased risk of 1.18 (95% CI: 1.01–1.38) for CS and a decreased risk of 0.89 (95% CI: 0.51–1.55) for GDM, when the population was stratified by pre-BMI classification.

For C677T polymorphism, an increased risk of 1.74 (95% CI: 1.07–2.83) for CS was observed in pregnant women with overweight and CT + TT genotype, which was consistent with the subgroup analysis stratified by C677T dominant model (Supplementary Tables S4 and S5).

Discussion

In this study, the prevalence of GDM, GHT, CS, and PROM in pregnant Chinese women was 18.8%, 6.6%, 36.5%, and 24.1%, respectively. According to the Chinese BMI classification [19], 19.7% of the participants were underweight, 6.9% were overweight, and 2.0% were obese. Compared to those in the normal weight group, pregnant women with a higher pre-BMI (≥ 24.0 kg/m2) were more likely to have GDM, GHT, and CS, while a low pre-BMI exerted protective effects on GDM, GHT, and CS. Moreover, no significant associations between MTHFR genotypes and maternal outcomes were observed. Among pregnant women in the obese group, an elevation in the risk of GHT (OR = 6.49) and CS (OR = 4.18) was observed among subjects with the A1298C AC + CC genotype compared to the AA genotype group. Our findings also suggested that overweight or obesity during pregnancy in women with the C667T AA genotype had a higher risk of GHT (OR = 4.72) compared to those with the CT + TT genotype.

Multiple risk factors can affect pregnancy health, including maternal nutritional status, lifestyle, age, environmental factors, placental changes, and epigenetic alterations [7]. Overweight and obesity, an increasing health problem, are generally considered important risk factors for adverse maternal outcomes, including GDM, preeclampsia, and CS [20,21,22]. A possible mechanism is that maternal overweight and obesity are related to the effects of oxidative stress, proinflammatory status, energy homeostasis, angiogenesis, and insulin insensitivity [23, 24]. In this analysis, 499 (8.89%) women were classified as overweight or obese before pregnancy based on the Chinese BMI standard, which is similar to previous studies in Lanzhou (10.75%) [25], Wuhan (6.63%) [26], and Taiwan (9.80%) [27]. In addition, our study suggested that higher pre-BMI in pregnant women was related to GDM, GHT, and CS, compared with those with normal weight, which are similar to those of previous studies on Western and Chinese populations. For instance, women who were obese before pregnancy were more likely to develop hypertensive disorders during pregnancy than those who had a normal pre-BMI (OR = 5.53, 95% CI = 4.28–7.13) [26]. A meta-analysis including 133 research reports was conducted to study the association between GDM and BMI, and it showed that the risk of developing GDM was 2.29-fold in overweight and 6.79-fold in obese pregnant women compared to normal-weight pregnant women [28]. Obese women in Ghanaian had a 2-fold increased risk for CS and a more than six-fold higher risk of pregnancy-induced hypertension [29]. A study conducted by Rudra et al. reported that being overweight before pregnancy is associated with the risk of preterm birth, and a weaker association was observed between spontaneous preterm birth and PROM [30], but we failed to find significant relationships between PROM and pre-BMI classification.

MTHFR C667T (rs1801133) and A1298C (rs1801131) are two of the most investigated SNPs. MTHFR C677T mutation causes the conversion of alanine to valine at position 677, leading to decreased MTHFR enzymatic activity [12]. Similarly, the A1298C polymorphism encodes glutamate to alanine substitution, leading to a decrease in enzyme activity, but to a lesser extent [31]. Emerging evidences suggested that MTHFR activity affected body fat storage, folate metabolism, and homocysteine methylation, which play important roles in human reproduction [32]. For example, a Chinese study showed that the MTHFR C677T TT genotype had a higher homocysteine level, and the recessive model of MTHFR C677T gene polymorphism was associated with preeclampsia renal function impairment [33]. The prevalence of CT and TT genotypes in patients with pregnancy-induced hypertension was higher than that in the control group, but no correlation was found with MTHFR A1298C mutations [34]. The maternal MTHFR A1298C CC genotype was associated with an increased risk of PE (OR = 1.80) compared to the AA genotype, while the paternal MTHFR C677T CT genotype was associated with an increased risk of GHT (OR = 1.60, 95% CI = 1.08–2.39) [35]. However, no associations were observed between MTHFR gene polymorphisms and adverse pregnancy outcomes in the present study. These inconsistent findings might be due to the small difference in homozygous mutations for MTHFR C677T and A1298C; 22 cases were A128C CC genotype and 43 cases were C677T TT genotype in overweight plus obesity group in our study. The small difference in homocysteine (Hcy) concentrations among the MTHFR genetic variations might be another reason. Only a slighter increasing of Hcy levels was found in C677T homozygous mutated subjects compared to CC and CT genetic subjects (TT: 7.07 ± 1.19 µmol/L vs. CT: 7.00 ± 1.23 µmol/L vs. CC:6.86 ± 1.27 µmol/L), and we failed to show significant promotions of Hcy concentrations among MTHFR A1298C genotypes.

In addition, MTHFR genetic variations have also exerted a regulatory effect on overweight or obesity. According to the results of a randomized controlled trial, intervention with folate consumption from natural foods for eight weeks had a beneficial effect on the reduction of inflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-6, and IL1β) and Hcy in overweight and obese women with MTHFR C677T polymorphism TT genotype [36]. Renzo et al. conducted a dietary study in an Italian population and observed that participants with the C677T CT or TT genotype had a higher BMI, and the ratio of total body lean to total body fat was significantly lower in the mutated genotype group after dietary intervention [37]. However, the modification effects of MTHFR gene polymorphisms on the association between pre-BMI groups and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Our findings suggested that pregnant obese women with the A1298C AC + CC genotype were likely to experience GHT (OR = 6.49) and CS (OR = 4.26), whereas those with the C667T CC genotype had a higher risk of GHT (OR = 4.72). These associations presented in this study are difficult to interpret because there are few studies available regarding the interaction between MTHFR polymorphisms and being overweight or obese on the risk of GHT. Polymorphisms in MTHFR A1298C AC + CC genotype might decrease MTHFR enzyme activity, 5-methyl THF [38], and impaired production of Hcy (AA: 7.16 ± 1.53 µmol/L vs. AC + CC: 7.09 ± 1.59 µmol/L) in this study, which would explain the associations between the A1298C AC + CC genotype and GHT, but no association for maternal C677T CT + TT genotype and the risk of GHT. It might also due to small sample size of women with 54 cases of overweight and 19 cases of obesity for the subgroup analysis. On the other hand,similar ORs were observed for GDM and CS, which was consistent with the association between pre-BMI groups and the risk of GDM and CS mentioned above. Pregnant women had an increased risk of 2.11 (95% CI: 1.20–3.73) for GDM in obesity group and of 1.64 (95% CI: 1.17–2.30) for CS in the overweight group with MTHFR A1298C AA genotype and 2.40 (95% CI: 1.28–4.47) for GDM in the obesity group and 1.98 (95% CI:1.38–2.85) for CS in the overweight group with MTHFR CT + TT genotype. These findings are in parallel with those of studies on the interaction between being overweight/obese or MTHFR gene polymorphisms on GDM and CS risk. Maternal obesity is linked to an increased prevalence of CS and GDM [39]. A meta-analysis of the original epidemiological studies demonstrated that the susceptibility to GDM was higher in the C677T TT genotype, especially in Asians [40], which was further supported by a gene-nutrient interaction study based on a Chinese pregnancy cohort [41]. The difference between these two SNPs might be because A1298C non-mutated pregnant women with higher pre-BMI values are more likely to be homozygous or heterozygous mutants for the C677T polymorphism, which might be affected by the C677T mutation.

A comprehensive investigation including 5614 mother-infant pairs was performed to evaluate the association between pre-BMI, MTHFR polymorphisms, and adverse pregnancy outcomes. We also explored the influence of MTHFR polymorphisms on the association between maternal pre-BMI and risk of GDM, GHT, and CS. However, our study has several limitations. First, the data of pre-pregnancy BMI relies on self-reported weight and height, which may cause a possibility of confounding bias in data processing. Moreover, the sample size of pregnant women with a higher pre-BMI was relatively small. Second, several potential confounders, such as diet, physical activity, and other environmental exposures, were not controlled in our analysis model, which might have affected the reliability of our results. Third, only two common SNPs in MTHFR were included in our study, and future studies should focus on the modification effects of other variants of MTHFR gene polymorphisms.

Conclusions

In summary, we conducted a retrospective study based on 5614 mother-infant pairs in Chinese population to explore the association of pre-BMI and MTHFR genotypes with the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes, indicating that a higher pre-BMI (≥ 24.0 kg/m2) in pregnant women was positively related to the risk of GDM, GHT, and CS. We also found evidence that MTHFR polymorphisms could modify the association between maternal pre-BMI and risk of GDM, GHT, and CS. Pregnant women with obesity and MTHFR A1298C AC + CC or overweight with the C667T CC genotype had the highest risk for GHT. Our research could be used as a potential guideline for weight administration and gene detection before pregnancy to improve maternal outcomes in the Chinese population. Further investigations with larger sample sizes and prospective or multicenter designs are warranted to confirm our findings.

Data Availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

BMI:

Body mass index

CS:

Cesarean section

CI:

95% confidence interval

GDM:

Gestational diabetes mellitus

GHT:

Gestational hypertension

Hcy:

Homocysteine

HWE:

Hardy-Weinberg expectation

MTHFR:

Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase

OR:

Odds ratios

PROM:

Premature rupture of membranes

References

  1. Chu SY, Callaghan WM, Kim SY, Schmid CH, Lau J, England LJ, Dietz PM. Maternal obesity and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2007;30(8):2070–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Hirshberg A, Srinivas SK. Epidemiology of maternal morbidity and mortality. Semin Perinatol. 2017;41(6):332–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Goldenberg RL, McClure EM, Saleem S. Improving pregnancy outcomes in low- and middle-income countries. Reprod Health. 2018;15(Suppl 1):88.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Holmer H, Oyerinde K, Meara JG, Gillies R, Liljestrand J, Hagander L. The global met need for emergency obstetric care: a systematic review. BJOG. 2015;122(2):183–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Parikh NI, Gonzalez JM, Anderson CAM, Judd SE, Rexrode KM, Hlatky MA, Gunderson EP, Stuart JJ, Vaidya D, American Heart Association Council on E. Adverse pregnancy outcomes and Cardiovascular Disease Risk: Unique Opportunities for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Women: A Scientific Statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2021;143(18):e902–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Stephenson J, Heslehurst N, Hall J, Schoenaker D, Hutchinson J, Cade JE, Poston L, Barrett G, Crozier SR, Barker M, et al. Before the beginning: nutrition and lifestyle in the preconception period and its importance for future health. Lancet. 2018;391(10132):1830–41.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Huang LT. Maternal and Early-Life Nutrition and Health. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020, 17(21).

  8. Patro Golab B, Santos S, Voerman E, Lawlor DA, Jaddoe VWV, Gaillard R, Authors MSG. Influence of maternal obesity on the association between common pregnancy complications and risk of childhood obesity: an individual participant data meta-analysis. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2018;2(11):812–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Chen YT, Zhang T, Chen C, Xia YY, Han TL, Chen XY, He XL, Xu G, Zou Z, Qi HB, et al. Associations of early pregnancy BMI with adverse pregnancy outcomes and infant neurocognitive development. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):3793.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Santos S, Voerman E, Amiano P, Barros H, Beilin LJ, Bergstrom A, Charles MA, Chatzi L, Chevrier C, Chrousos GP, et al. Impact of maternal body mass index and gestational weight gain on pregnancy complications: an individual participant data meta-analysis of european, north american and australian cohorts. BJOG. 2019;126(8):984–95.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Reichetzeder C. Overweight and obesity in pregnancy: their impact on epigenetics. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2021;75(12):1710–22.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Liew SC, Gupta ED. Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) C677T polymorphism: epidemiology, metabolism and the associated diseases. Eur J Med Genet. 2015;58(1):1–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Li WX, Dai SX, Zheng JJ, Liu JQ, Huang JF. Homocysteine Metabolism Gene polymorphisms (MTHFR C677T, MTHFR A1298C, MTR A2756G and MTRR A66G) jointly elevate the risk of Folate Deficiency. Nutrients. 2015;7(8):6670–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Wu W, Luo D, Ruan X, Gu C, Lu W, Lian K, Mu X. Polymorphisms in gene MTHFR modify the association between gestational weight gain and adverse birth outcomes. Front Nutr. 2022;9:919651.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Wang XM, Wu HY, Qiu XJ. Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (MTHFR) gene C677T polymorphism and risk of preeclampsia: an updated meta-analysis based on 51 studies. Arch Med Res. 2013;44(3):159–68.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Liu PJ, Liu Y, Ma L, Yao AM, Chen XY, Hou YX, Wu LP, Xia LY. Associations between Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Risk and Folate Status in early pregnancy and MTHFR C677T polymorphisms in chinese women. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes. 2020;13:1499–507.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Zhi X, Yang B, Fan S, Wang Y, Wei J, Zheng Q, Sun G. Gender-specific interactions of MTHFR C677T and MTRR A66G polymorphisms with overweight/obesity on serum lipid levels in a chinese Han population. Lipids Health Dis. 2016;15(1):185.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Brown MA, Lindheimer MD, de Swiet M, Van Assche A, Moutquin JM. The classification and diagnosis of the hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: statement from the International Society for the study of hypertension in pregnancy (ISSHP). Hypertens Pregnancy. 2001;20(1):IX–XIV.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Zhou B, Coorperative Meta-Analysis Group Of China Obesity Task F. [Predictive values of body mass index and waist circumference to risk factors of related diseases in chinese adult population]. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi. 2002;23(1):5–10.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Liu P, Xu L, Wang Y, Zhang Y, Du Y, Sun Y, Wang Z. Association between perinatal outcomes and maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index. Obes Rev. 2016;17(11):1091–102.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Wei YM, Yang HX, Zhu WW, Liu XY, Meng WY, Wang YQ, Shang LX, Cai ZY, Ji LP, Wang YF, et al. Risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes stratified for pre-pregnancy body mass index. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2016;29(13):2205–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Sun Y, Shen Z, Zhan Y, Wang Y, Ma S, Zhang S, Liu J, Wu S, Feng Y, Chen Y, et al. Effects of pre-pregnancy body mass index and gestational weight gain on maternal and infant complications. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2020;20(1):390.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Catalano PM, Shankar K. Obesity and pregnancy: mechanisms of short term and long term adverse consequences for mother and child. BMJ. 2017;356:j1.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Catalano PM. Management of obesity in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol. 2007;109(2 Pt 1):419–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Shao Y, Qiu J, Huang H, Mao B, Dai W, He X, Cui H, Lin X, Lv L, Wang D, et al. Pre-pregnancy BMI, gestational weight gain and risk of preeclampsia: a birth cohort study in Lanzhou, China. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2017;17(1):400.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Zhou A, Xiong C, Hu R, Zhang Y, Bassig BA, Triche E, Yang S, Qiu L, Zhang Y, Yao C, et al. Pre-pregnancy BMI, Gestational Weight Gain, and the risk of Hypertensive Disorders of pregnancy: a Cohort Study in Wuhan, China. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(8):e0136291.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Chen CN, Chen HS, Hsu HC. Maternal Prepregnancy Body Mass Index, Gestational Weight Gain, and Risk of Adverse Perinatal Outcomes in Taiwan: A Population-Based Birth Cohort Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020, 17(4).

  28. Paulo MS, Abdo NM, Bettencourt-Silva R, Al-Rifai RH. Gestational diabetes Mellitus in Europe: a systematic review and Meta-analysis of Prevalence Studies. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021;12:691033.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Van Der Linden EL, Browne JL, Vissers KM, Antwi E, Agyepong IA, Grobbee DE, Klipstein-Grobusch K. Maternal body mass index and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a ghanaian cohort study. Obes (Silver Spring). 2016;24(1):215–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Rudra CB, Frederick IO, Williams MA. Pre-pregnancy body mass index and weight gain during pregnancy in relation to preterm delivery subtypes. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2008;87(5):510–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Klai S, Fekih-Mrissa N, El Housaini S, Kaabechi N, Nsiri B, Rachdi R, Gritli N. Association of MTHFR A1298C polymorphism (but not of MTHFR C677T) with elevated homocysteine levels and placental vasculopathies. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 2011;22(5):374–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Froese DS, Huemer M, Suormala T, Burda P, Coelho D, Gueant JL, Landolt MA, Kozich V, Fowler B, Baumgartner MR. Mutation update and review of severe Methylenetetrahydrofolate Reductase Deficiency. Hum Mutat. 2016;37(5):427–38.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Yun L, Ge M, Xu R, Zheng F, Zhao X, Li X. C677T gene polymorphism of MTHFR is a risk factor for impaired renal function in pregnant women with Preeclampsia in the chinese Han Population. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2022;9:902346.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Zhang L, Sun L, Wei T. Correlation between MTHFR gene polymorphism and homocysteine levels for prognosis in patients with pregnancy-induced hypertension. Am J Transl Res. 2021;13(7):8253–61.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Jankovic-Karasoulos T, Furness DL, Leemaqz SY, Dekker GA, Grzeskowiak LE, Grieger JA, Andraweera PH, McCullough D, McAninch D, McCowan LM, et al. Maternal folate, one-carbon metabolism and pregnancy outcomes. Matern Child Nutr. 2021;17(1):e13064.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Lisboa JVC, Ribeiro MR, Luna RCP, Lima RPA, Nascimento R, Monteiro M, Lima KQF, Fechine C, Oliveira NFP, Persuhn DC et al. Food Intervention with Folate Reduces TNF-alpha and Interleukin Levels in Overweight and Obese Women with the MTHFR C677T Polymorphism: A Randomized Trial. Nutrients 2020, 12(2).

  37. Di Renzo L, Marsella LT, Sarlo F, Soldati L, Gratteri S, Abenavoli L, De Lorenzo A. C677T gene polymorphism of MTHFR and metabolic syndrome: response to dietary intervention. J Transl Med. 2014;12:329.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. van der Put NM, Blom HJ. Neural tube defects and a disturbed folate dependent homocysteine metabolism. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2000;92(1):57–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Yogev Y, Visser GH. Obesity, gestational diabetes and pregnancy outcome. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2009;14(2):77–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Chen Y, Lu M, Nie J, Liu J, Liu Y, Meng Y, Sun X, Ji C, Zhang J, Yang X. Increasing prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus when carrying the T variant allele of the MTHFR gene C677T polymorphism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2022;305(5):1193–202.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Li S, Tian X, Wang Y, Zhang X, Zhang L, Li C, Li J, Wang C, Liu H, Liu J et al. Associations of Maternal rs1801131 Genotype in MTHFR and Serum Folate and Vitamin B(12) with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Chinese Pregnant Women. Nutrients 2022, 14(6).

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all the participants who volunteered to participate in this study.

Funding

This work was funded by the Medical Scientific Research Foundation of Guangdong Province of China (A2022196), Guangzhou Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (202201011029), and Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province of China (2022A1515012226).

Author information

Author notes

  1. Chunming Gu and Weixiang Wu have contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Clinical Laboratory, Guangdong Women and Children Hospital, Guangzhou, China

    Chunming Gu, Weixiang Wu, Kefeng Lai, Huan Li, Lihong Wu, Weiming Lu, Xiaolin Ruan & Mingyong Luo

Authors
  1. Chunming Gu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Weixiang Wu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kefeng Lai
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Huan Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Lihong Wu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Weiming Lu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Xiaolin Ruan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Mingyong Luo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

ML contributed to the conception and design of the study. CG and WW conducted data analysis and wrote the manuscript. WL, XR, KL, LW, and HL contributed to data analysis and interpretation. All authors critically reviewed the manuscript for important intellectual content and approved the final version for publication.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mingyong Luo.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of Guangdong Women and Children Hospital and the committee’s reference number was 202301002. This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, revised in 1983, and the guidelines of the center’s institutional review board. All participants received details regarding the study and provided written informed consent.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Additional file 1:

Supplementary Figure and Tables.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Gu, C., Wu, W., Lai, K. et al. Maternal pre-pregnancy BMI, MTHFR polymorphisms, and the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes in pregnant women from South China: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 23, 295 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-023-05605-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-023-05605-6

Keywords

BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth

ISSN: 1471-2393

Contact us