Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, such as pre-eclampsia (PE) and pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH) are a major cause of maternal morbidity [1]. The incidence rate of pre-eclampsia stands at 3-10% globally, [2] with a 7% rate reported amongst Ghanaian pregnant women [3],[4]. Taking into account numerous studies conducted, the aetiology of this condition remains unknown [5], although factors such as obesity, diabetes, calcium (Ca²⁺) deficiency [6], advanced maternal age, oxidative stress, placental ischemia, genetics and immune maladaptation have been implicated [7].

PIH develops due to pregnancy and regresses after delivery. It is a known cause of premature delivery, intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), placental abruption, foetal death, and numerous adverse pregnancy outcomes. Previous history of pre-eclampsia, pre-existing diabetes, multiple pregnancies, nulliparity and advanced maternal age (≥40 years) have been reported to increase the risk of PIH and thus PE [7]-[9].

Previous reports have considered the association between hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (PE and PIH) and serum electrolytes, particularly Ca²⁺ and magnesium (Mg²⁺) [10]-[13]. It has been reported that there are reduced levels of Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ in pre-eclampsia [12],[13]. Meanwhile, a recent report from Nigeria has indicated that apart from raised levels of sodium in pre-eclampsia, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ were within normal reference intervals [14]. To date, a study on Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ levels amongst women presenting with PE and PIH is non-existent in Ghana, although the use of magnesium sulphate remains the treatment of choice, especially in eclampsia. Are there changes in levels of these electrolytes and are these changes a contributing factor to the causation of hypertensive disorders of pregnancy in Ghana? It is therefore expedient to address this gap, with the aim of providing preliminary data that could influence the prevention and management of PE and PIH in Ghana.

We assessed the levels of serum Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ in women presenting with PE and PIH, compared to that in normal pregnancy. We further assessed factors that may contribute to an increased risk of PIH and PE in Ghana.

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are associated with increased morbidity and mortality, especially during delivery [1]. Our study was conducted to assess the levels of serum Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ in pregnant women with PE and PIH compared to that in normal pregnancy. It also identified factors that may contribute to an increased risk of PIH and PE. To date, no such study has been conducted in Ghana. Our results showed that levels of serum Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ was significantly reduced in women with PE and PIH and advanced maternal age (≥40) was associated with a higher risk of developing PIH. The present study adds to implications on the aetiology of hypertension in pregnancy in Ghana and may influence prevention and treatment through mineral supplementation during the antenatal period.

Hypertensive disorders are the commonest medical complications that develop during pregnancy, characterized by an increase in blood pressure. In accordance with presentation of the condition, the present study showed that systolic and diastolic blood pressure was significantly raised in women with PIH and PE [9],[18].

Serum calcium and magnesium are very important for metabolism at the cellular level and are vital for muscle contraction, cell death and neuronal activity [13], making it very essential in pregnancy. The observation of low Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ levels is in agreement with other studies on hypertensive disorders in pregnancy [10],[12],[13],[19]. A probable theory to this observation may be that when serum calcium levels decreased, the levels of intracellular calcium increased, leading to constriction of smooth muscles in blood vessels and therefore increased vascular resistance [20]-[22], culminating in a raised systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Furthermore, previous reports suggest that altered calcium homoeostasis, as exhibited by increased calcium excretion, is associated with higher blood pressure levels [23]. Low serum calcium levels may also increase blood pressure by stimulating parathyroid hormone and rennin release, which in turn increases intracellular calcium in smooth muscle, leading to vasoconstriction [24]. The observation is further supported by the 2011 WHO recommendation, which found a higher risk of pre-eclampsia in pregnant women with low dietary intake of calcium and recommended supplementation for such women [25]. This implies that calcium levels may play a role in hypertensive disorders in pregnancy.

Golmohammad Lou et al. [26] have disputed the role of calcium and trace elements in high blood pressure, for that matter, in pre-eclampsia. They explained that, although slightly lower, there was no significant difference in calcium and magnesium levels between women with pre-eclampsia and normal, healthy pregnant women [26]. This however, is slightly contentious as magnesium supplementation during treatment of pre-eclampsia and seizures, has been shown to oppose calcium-dependent arterial constriction and may antagonize the increase in intracellular calcium concentration. A Cochrane review as well as recommendations by the WHO on prevention and management of pre-eclampsia and eclampsia have consistently supported that supplementation of these minerals in pregnancy is associated with a significant reduction in the risk of pre-eclampsia [25],[27],[28]. Therefore, exemptions to the fact that low calcium and magnesium levels exist in such conditions may not be justified.

The observed low levels of magnesium in women with PIH and PE could be due to decreased dietary intake, increased clearance by the kidneys, haemodilution due to expansion of the extracellular space and increased consumption of minerals by the growing foetus [13]. This together with lowered calcium levels play a role in the development of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy. Other researchers have proposed that a reduction in the level of extracellular Mg²⁺ causes partial membrane depolarization and decreased repolarisation along with opening of Ca²⁺ membrane channels, leading to an intracellular Ca²⁺ shift. Furthermore, the existing increase in the foetal Ca²⁺ demand may also block bone resorption of Ca²⁺ with a concurrent intracellular pull [19],[29]. This phenomenon produces vasoconstriction together with an increase in the blood pressure, as seen in PIH and PE.

The effect of Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺ in the pathogenesis of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy is supported by the observed positive correlation between magnesium and calcium in all participating groups, although not significant amongst those with PE.

Further correlation analysis showed a positive association between BMI and SBP in all groups and was significant amongst both controls and those with PIH but not PE. This relationship is similar to findings from other studies [30]-[33]. The observed association is thought to be as a result of the role of obesity-mediated inflammation in the pathogenesis of PIH [34].

Multivariate logistic regression showed that pregnancy in advanced maternal age (≥40 years) was associated with about a two-fold and five-fold increase in the odds of developing PIH and PE respectively. This was however significant for PIH but not PE. This observation is similar to that observed in other studies [8],[9],[35] but contrary to reports of existing significant risk of PE in a much younger age group (≥21 years) [36]. Acknowledging that PIH and PE may only be different manifestations of the same disease, there is some evidence that these conditions may be distinct in pathophysiology [37]. Furthermore, the increased risk of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy with increasing age has been suggested to be associated with the biological changes that occur with ageing [9]. These biological changes may interact differently with the pathophysiological processes of PIH and PE, hence yielding different outcomes. In a systematic review of controlled trials [8], women aged ≥40 had about two times the risk of developing pre-eclampsia, whether they were primiparous or multiparous [38]. This review however found that most studies failed to address differences between participants at baseline; hence, only one study was taken into account. Much therefore remains to be determined concerning age and hypertensive disorders in pregnancy, especially PE. That notwithstanding, caution must be exercised in assessing risk of PE in advanced maternal age.

How much decline in levels of serum Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺ is associated with an increased risk of hypertension in pregnancy? At what stage do these changes begin to manifest as a rise in blood pressure and proteinuria? Can these electrolytes exhibit a predictive ability for PIH and PE? To clarify these, it is important to conduct further studies.

In this study population, levels of serum calcium and magnesium are significantly low in women with PIH and PE than in normal pregnancy. Increased maternal age was associated with an increased risk of PIH but not PE. This may suggest a cause and effect relationship between these electrolytes and hypertension in pregnancy. It helps to understand the pathophysiological process of hypertension in pregnancy, and to establish and enhance existing preventive strategies for the condition. Mineral supplementation during the antenatal period may influence significantly, the occurrence of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy.