Skip to main content
Download PDF

Intergenerational transmission of health disparities among Turkish-origin immigrants in Germany: study protocol of a multi-centric cohort study (BaBi-stress and BaBeK study)

BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth volume 20, Article number: 158 (2020) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Immigrants in Germany exhibit higher levels of social disadvantage when compared to the non-immigrated population. Turkish-origin immigrants constitute an important immigrant group in Germany and show disparities in some health domains that are evident from birth onwards. Several studies have shown the mechanisms by which social disadvantage is biologically embedded to affect health over the lifespan. Relatively little, however, is still known about if and how the maternal social situation is transmitted to the next generation. This study therefore aims to analyse the effects of maternal socioeconomic status and migration status on stress-related maternal-placental-fetal (MPF) biological processes during pregnancy on infant birth and health outcomes.

Methods

This longitudinal cohort study of N = 144 child-mother dyads is located at two study sites in Germany and includes pregnant women of Turkish origin living in Germany as well as pregnant German women. During pregnancy, MPF stress biology markers from maternal blood and saliva samples, maternal socio-economic and migration-related information, medical risk variables and psychological well-being are assessed. After birth, infant anthropometric measures and developmental outcomes are assessed. The same measures will be assessed in and compared to Turkish pregnant women based on a collaboration with BABIP study in Istanbul.

Discussion

This is the first study on intergenerational transmission of health disparities in Germany with a focus on women of Turkish-origin. The study faces similar risks of bias as other birth cohorts do. The study has implemented various measures, e.g. culturally sensitive recruitment strategies, attempt to recruit and follow-up as many pregnant women as possible independent of their social or cultural background. Nevertheless, the response rate among lower-educated families is lower. The possibility to compare results with a cohort from Turkey is a strength of this study. However, starting at different times and with slightly different recruitment strategies and designs may result in cohort effects and may affect comparability of the sub-cohorts.

Trial registration

N.A. (Observational study, no clinical trial, no interventions on human participants).

Peer Review reports

Background

Immigration to Germany is at its highest number in nearly two decades, and diversity of the population in Germany is increasing. 38% of children under the age of five in Germany belong to families with migrant background [1]. Immigrants, particularly those from low-income to high-income countries, are significantly more likely to experience social disadvantage when compared to the non-immigrated population that may – in part – underlie the observed health differences between host and immigrant populations. Our focus on Turkish-origin individuals in the current study is guided by the consideration that this segment of the German population a) constitutes one of the largest migration groups in Germany, defined by country of origin [2]; b) is especially socially disadvantaged [3, 4]; c) displays health disparities relative to the native German and other minority populations in the country [5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17]; and d) exhibits a decline in some aspects of health as a function of duration of residence in Germany and across generations [10, 18].

A substantial body of research has uncovered the cascading pathways and underlying mechanisms by which social disadvantage gets biologically embedded “under the skin” to impact health and disease risk across the life span [19]. However, this body of work treats the emergence of health inequalities as a process that operates within the individual life span. Relatively little research has addressed the question of whether and how the effects of social disadvantage may potentially be transmitted across generations [20,21,22]. Origins of population health disparities may, in part, trace back to the intergenerational effects of maternal migration-related experiences and social disadvantage on her child’s development during the critical period of intrauterine life [23, 24], and we advance the hypothesis that context- and time-inappropriate levels of the resultant stress biology exposures (maternal-placental-fetal endocrine and immune/inflammatory state) during embryonic and fetal life may “program” the structural and functional integrity of cells, tissues and organ systems in a manner that impacts subsequent health and disease risk-related outcomes. As an essential first step towards addressing this hypothesis, we seek to elucidate, in a population-based cohort of pregnant women, in particular of Turkish-origin, and native German mother-child dyads at two study sites located in Bielefeld (BaBi-Stress) and Berlin (BaBeK), the effects of maternal migration status and social disadvantage on stress-related maternal-placental-fetal (MPF) biological processes across gestation. We suggest that stress-related MPF endocrine and immune processes in gestation constitute an attractive underlying biological candidate mechanism for transmitting the effects of different maternal exposure to the fetus for the following reasons: First, these measures are among the most reliable, objective indicators of human fetal exposure to in utero stress (see Fig. 1). A number of animal and human studies, including our work, suggest that perturbations in MPF endocrine and immune/inflammatory stress biology are produced by a broad array of intrauterine conditions [23]. Second, epidemiological, clinical, cellular and molecular evidence converge to suggest that stress-related endocrine and immune processes may serve as a key common physiological pathway (sensors, transducers and effectors) to mediate the effects of intrauterine perturbations on the fetal targets that regulate physiology [25, 26]. Therefore, we assess endocrine (placental corticotrophin-releasing hormone (pCRH), cortisol, and inflammatory (interleukin (IL)-6; C-reactive protein (CRP)) measures of MPF biology serially over the course of gestation as key markers of exposure to adverse intrauterine conditions.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Conceptual framework and study aims

Full size image

This is the first study on fetal programming of health disparities with a focus on Turkish-origin women in Germany, including a comparison cohort of German women in Germany and the possibility to compare the measures with those assessed in a cohort of Turkish pregnant women in Turkey (based on a collaboration with BABIP study) [27]. The significance and impact of this study derives from the importance of achieving a better understanding of underlying mechanisms that alter disease vulnerability in minority and disadvantaged populations. Aims of the study are:

  • To test the hypothesis that a) migration background predicts MPF stress biology during pregnancy, and b) the association between migration background and MPF stress biology during pregnancy is moderated by other social determinants of health.

  • To quantify relative contribution of maternal psychological (stress, social support), behavioral (diet, physical activity, substance use) and biophysical (maternal pre-pregnancy BMI and weight gain) states in the overall association of maternal migration background and socioeconomic status (SES) with maternal stress biology.

  • To quantify the association of maternal migration background and social disadvantage-related MPF stress biology measures on child birth and health outcomes.

Methods and design

This study is a multi-centric cohort study to investigate the effects of maternal migration status and SES on stress-related MPF biological processes across gestation and on subsequent infant birth and health outcomes. The study is located at two study sites: BaBi-Stress study in Bielefeld (Germany) and BaBeK study in Berlin (Germany). The cohort will include N = 144 pregnant women with their children (child-mother dyads) with serial measures across gestation and birth through 1 month postpartum.

BaBi-Stress in Bielefeld started in 2015 as an add-on study to the larger BaBi birth cohort study [28]. BaBeK was established by the BaBi-Stress study team in Berlin in 2016. Recruitment was established at these two study sites in order to include sufficient numbers of women of Turkish-origin within the study period. The study population consisting of these two sub-cohorts will enable us to disentangle the impact of ethnic and migration specific influences on maternal stress and child health outcomes.

At both study sites, pregnant women are being recruited through gynecologists and midwifes as well as ads and flyers. All study materials including questionnaires are available in German and Turkish language. If necessary, study visits and interviews are conducted by Turkish speaking study nurses. Inclusion criteria were women ≥18 years, singleton intrauterine pregnancy, <= 24 weeks pregnant, German or Turkish speaking, legal residence in Germany, and no chronic maternal diseases or severe pregnancy complications.

Exclusion criteria were younger than 18 years of age, twin or multiple pregnancy, > 24 weeks pregnant, not German or Turkish speaking, and resident of countries other than Germany. German or Turkish origin/ethnicity were not an inclusion criteria because different concepts of migrant background/ origin/ ethnicity exist. We conducted detailed assessments of family background and immigration history after inclusion into the study. Specifically, information on country of birth of the participating pregnant woman and of her parents (mother and father) enables us to describe the migration history of participants more precisely than using measures like nationality/ citizenship or self-assigned origin.

The study design comprises two study visits in Bielefeld and three study visits in Berlin (see Fig. 2), at the second (T1) and third trimester (T2) during pregnancy and 1 month postpartum (T3, in Berlin only).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Data collection and follow-up

Full size image

We are assessing maternal socio-economic and migration-related information, psychological stress and well-being, nutrition, medical risk variables, and MPF stress biology markers from maternal blood and saliva samples. In Berlin (BaBeK study), additionally infant anthropometric measures and developmental outcomes are collected during infancy.

Table 1 gives an overview of all outcome measures regarding MPF biology of the participants and the physical and cognitive development of their newborns.

Table 1 List of outcome measures
Full size table

An overview of questionnaires used, the time points of assessment and references is given in Table 2.

Table 2 Questionnaires used at time points T1, T2, and T3
Full size table

Measures of MPF stress biology

In all two sub-cohorts, blood and saliva samples to assess concentrations of MPF endocrine and immune stress markers are collected at the same two time windows (T1, 20–24 weeks, and T2, 30–34 weeks gestation) during pregnancy (see Fig. 2). The two specific times were selected because the change in endocrine and immune parameters from early to late gestation is critical in characterizing the MPF endocrine and immune stress trajectory with respect to its impact on birth and child developmental outcomes [46, 47].

In Bielefeld and Berlin, maternal blood samples were drawn by the attending prenatal care medical personnel. Women were asked to collect 3 saliva samples per-day on two consecutive days for each pregnancy visit, at awakening, 30-min after awakening, and at 8 pm, which will enable assessment of the diurnal variation of cortisol secretion. Saliva was collected using Salivettes (Sarstedt). The MEMS® (Medication Event Monitoring Systems, AARDEX) system (electronic bottle caps) was used to time and date stamp instances of saliva collection at home. Women were asked to fill out a short questionnaire about their sleep and daily activities and other extraordinary events (medications, gum bleeding etc.) during the saliva collection days. Salivettes were stored in the freezer until they were picked up by a study team member. From the blood samples, CRH and immune biomarkers (CRP, IL-6) are being analyzed, and from the saliva samples cortisol is being analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs).

Psychological, demographic and health measures

A number of psychological constructs are being assessed by validated questionnaires, including: perceived and pregnancy-specific stress, worries, critical life events, anxiety, depression, post-partum depression, relationship satisfaction, acculturation, acculturative stress, and perceived discrimination. Information on socioeconomic and migration-related factors are assessed during the interview at T2, including household income, maternal and partner educational and job attainment, migration history of the participant, her parents and her partner (country of origin, residence status, length of stay, language competencies). Health-related information that is also assessed during the interview includes past and current non-communicable and infectious diseases, psychological disorders, health-related behaviors (physical activities, doctor visits, alcohol consumption, smoking, nutrition), and pregnancy history (number of past pregnancies, complications, risk factors). In the BaBeK study (Berlin), information on birth outcomes (incl. birth weight and height, gestational length, medical risk factors) was extracted from medical records (the so called “Mutterpass” and “U-Heft” documents that contain all medical information during pregnancy and from birth, gathered during medical examinations) 1 month postpartum. In Bielefeld, information on birth outcomes was assessed by a follow-up questionnaire that was sent to the mothers during the newborn’s first year of life as well as data extracted from the BaBi birth cohort, if women participated in both studies.

Participants

The first pregnant women were enrolled in the study in 2016 in Bielefeld and in 2017 in Berlin. Recruitment has been completed in Bielefeld in April 2017 (n = 84) and in Berlin in summer 2018 (n = 60). Numbers of enrolled women by country of origin are shown in Table 3. Data analysis of MPF biology has started with the data of the Bielefeld and Berlin study sites and will be finished including the comparisons with the data from BABIP cohort in Istanbul in 2020.

Table 3 Number of participants (pregnant women) based on country of birth of the women and their parents
Full size table

Statistical power and analysis

We based the statistical power analyses on simulation models we developed for this purpose that incorporate conservative estimates of published effect sizes from our previous studies on group comparisons related to MPF biology. After verifying that the simulation reproduced the assumed pattern of relationships, we used SAS PROC MIXED to perform the planned analyses for each of the specific aims on the simulated data. The standard errors from these analyses were used to generate power estimates for a sample size of n = 50 per group (high vs. low stress exposure) and α = .05 (two-tailed tests). Based on these estimates, the minimum effects for differences in measures of MPF biology (CRP, CRH, IL-6, cortisol) by maternal background detectable with 80, 90 and 95% power were 0.12, 0.16 and 0.20, respectively (which correspond to effects described as “small” to “medium” by Cohen [48] reflecting the lower end of our expected effect sizes). Based on standard deviations of data on MPF biological parameters in our previous cohorts of pregnant women, this corresponds to mean differences between groups of 0.626, 0.822, 1.027 mg/dL for CRP; 19.855, 26.474, 33.092 pg/mL for CRH; 0.133, 0.178, 0,222 pg/mL for IL-6; and 0.033, 0.0438, 0.0548 μg/dL for salivary cortisol, respectively. Thus, the proposed sample size will provide adequate statistical power to test our hypotheses concerning within-person main effects, the moderating effects of between-person factors, and the interaction of the two.

In the comparison cohort of Turkish pregnant women in Istanbul (BABIP study) measures of more than 50 women will be available [27], thereby increasing power and variance of the study sample.

Relationships between maternal immigration background and MPF biology will be examined using regression models. For outcomes with repeated measurements (e.g., MPF biology assessed at two time points), mixed-effects regression models will be used. When models include correlated predictors, measures of variance inflation will be applied to assess potential problems of multicollinearity, and the appropriate scaling factors will be employed.

In line with the aims of the study, data analyses are currently ongoing. Results will be published in international scientific journals. First results have been presented at international conferences [49].

A qualitative data pilot study has been conducted to better understand the determinants of stress during pregnancy among women of Turkish origin. This qualitative study on the “Influence of the Turkish migrant background on the subjective feeling of stress in pregnancy” has identified migration-specific, psychological stress categories in pregnant Turkish-origin women, such as pressure from the family and social environment to start a family, conflicts and disputes within the family, lack of support from the partner, financial- and housing-related concerns, pressure to get a boy as a son and heir, pressure to be a perfect mother, and concerns about the cultural education of the child (to teach the child the language, values and beliefs of the culture of the country of origin). Results of this pilot study have been presented at a conference [50]. In future studies, these migration-specific, psychological stress-related constructs should be taken into account in the development of culturally-sensitive instruments for the assessment of maternal stress during pregnancy [50].

Discussion

This is the first study on fetal programming of health disparities with a focus on immigrant women, in particular on women of Turkish-origin in Germany that includes comparison cohorts of German women in Germany and the opportunity to compare the measures with a cohort of Turkish women in Turkey. The results contribute to a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms that affect disease vulnerability in minority and disadvantaged populations and the transmission of risks across generations.

An ideal cohort study researching migrant health should not only include immigrants and a non-immigrated population in the new home country (“host country”), but also participants in the country of origin [51]. As suggested by Spallek et al. [51] this study is to our knowledge the first cohort study in Germany that allows to compare the situation of Turkish migrant women and their offspring living in two different cities in Germany with non-migrated women in Germany (Comparison 2 in Fig. 3) and with non-migrated women in Turkey (Comparison 3). For the future, it would be desirable also to include additional sub-cohorts of Turkish migrant women in other host countries to make the suggested comparison 4 also possible.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Possibilities (1–4) to compare health of migrants with health of autochthonous (indigenous) populations [51]

Full size image

The study faces comparable risks of bias as other population-based birth cohorts. Bias due to self-selection of participants cannot be ruled out, as the study relies on voluntary participation. To reduce this bias and to recruit and follow-up as many pregnant women as possible independent from their social or cultural background, the study implemented various measures such as culturally sensitive recruitment, bilingual study materials and bilingual study nurses and public relations. Nevertheless, the response rate among families with a migrant background was lower than among those without a migrant background in Bielefeld and Berlin. In addition, in Bielefeld the response rate was lower among lower-educated families as compared to higher-educated families. The study is located at two study sites. The possibility to compare measures with a comparison cohort from Turkey is a strength of this study. However, starting at different times and with slightly different recruitment and design might result in cohort effects between the different cohorts and decrease comparability. Nevertheless, comparing measures of women from different environments is increasing the variance of the sample, allowing more sophisticated analyses, increasing the generalizability, and finally allowing comparison with the situation of Turkish women in Turkey.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to data protection restrictions as individual privacy could be compromised due to the small number of participants and the high specifity of the study population. Data and questionnaires will be made accessible to researchers by the corresponding author on reasonable request and in line with data protection regulations.

Abbreviations

BMI:

Body mass index

CRH:

Corticotrophin-releasing hormone

CRP:

C-reactive protein

ELISAs:

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays

IL-6:

Interleukin-6

MEMS®:

Medication Event Monitoring Systems

MPF:

Maternal-placental-fetal

pCRH:

Placental corticotrophin-releasing hormone

SES:

Socioeconomic status

References

  1. Federal Statistical Office (Destatis). Population and employment. Population with a migrant background. Results of the microcensus 2017; 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Federal Statistical Office (Destatis). Population and employment. Foreign population. Results of the Central Register of Foreigners; 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  3. TNS Infratest Sozialforschung. SOEP 2013 - survey instruments 2013 (Wave 30) of the socio-economic panel: individual questionaire, old samples: SOEP Survey Papers 180: Series A. Berlin; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Robert Koch Institute. Health in Germany. Federal health reporting. Joint service by RKI and Destatis. Berlin; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Bongard S, Pogge SF, Arslaner H, Rohrmann S, Hodapp V. Acculturation and cardiovascular reactivity of second-generation Turkish migrants in Germany. J Psychosom Res. 2002;53:795–803.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. David M, Pachaly J, Vetter K. Perinatal outcome in Berlin (Germany) among immigrants from Turkey. Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2006;274:271–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. de Hoog MLA, van Eijsden M, Stronks K, Gemke RJBJ, Vrijkotte TGM. Overweight at age two years in a multi-ethnic cohort (ABCD study): the role of prenatal factors, birth outcomes and postnatal factors. BMC Public Health. 2011;11:611.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Gilliver SC, Sundquist J, Li X, Sundquist K. Recent research on the mental health of immigrants to Sweden: a literature review. Eur J Pub Health. 2014;24(Suppl 1):72–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Kleiser C, Mensink GBM, Neuhauser H, Schenk L, Kurth B-M. Food intake of young people with a migration background living in Germany. Public Health Nutr. 2010;13:324–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Morawa E, Erim Y. Acculturation and depressive symptoms among Turkish immigrants in Germany. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2014;11:9503–21.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Reeske A, Spallek J, Razum O. Changes in smoking prevalence among first- and second-generation Turkish migrants in Germany - an analysis of the 2005 microcensus. Int J Equity Health. 2009;8:26.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Reeske A, Kutschmann M, Razum O, Spallek J. Stillbirth differences according to regions of origin: an analysis of the German perinatal database, 2004-2007. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2011;11:63.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Reeske A, Zeeb H, Razum O, Spallek J. Differences in the incidence of gestational diabetes between women of Turkish and German origin: an analysis of health insurance data from a statutory health Insurance in Berlin, Germany (AOK), 2005-2007. Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd. 2012;72:305–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Sariaslan S, Morawa E, Erim Y. Psychische Symptombelastung bei Patienten einer Allgemeinarztpraxis: Deutsche und türkischstämmige Patienten im Vergleich. Nervenarzt. 2014;85:589–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Spallek J, Arnold M, Hentschel S, Razum O. Cancer incidence rate ratios of Turkish immigrants in Hamburg, Germany: a registry based study. Cancer Epidemiol. 2009;33:413–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Uitewaal PJM, Manna DR, Bruijnzeels MA, Hoes AW, Thomas S. Prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus, other cardiovascular risk factors, and cardiovascular disease in Turkish and Moroccan immigrants in North West Europe: a systematic review. Prev Med. 2004;39:1068–76.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Ujcic-Voortman JK, Baan CA, Seidell JC, Verhoeff AP. Obesity and cardiovascular disease risk among Turkish and Moroccan migrant groups in Europe: a systematic review. Obes Rev. 2012;13:2–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Reiss K, Breckenkamp J, Borde T, Brenne S, David M, Razum O. Smoking during pregnancy among Turkish immigrants in Germany-are there associations with acculturation? Nicotine Tob Res. 2015;17:643–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Adler NE, Stewart J. Health disparities across the lifespan: meaning, methods, and mechanisms. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010;1186:5–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Coutinho R, David RJ, Collins JW. Relation of parental birth weights to infant birth weight among African Americans and whites in Illinois: a transgenerational study. Am J Epidemiol. 1997;146:804–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Foster HW, Wu L, Bracken MB, Semenya K, Thomas J. Intergenerational effects of high socioeconomic status on low birthweight and preterm birth in African Americans. J Natl Med Assoc. 2000;92:213–21.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Jasienska G. Low birth weight of contemporary African Americans: an intergenerational effect of slavery? Am J Hum Biol. 2009;21:16–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Entringer S, Buss C, Wadhwa PD. Prenatal stress and developmental programming of human health and disease risk: concepts and integration of empirical findings. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2010;17:507–16.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Gluckman PD, Hanson MA. Living with the past: evolution, development, and patterns of disease. Science. 2004;305:1733–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Wadhwa PD. Psychoneuroendocrine processes in human pregnancy influence fetal development and health. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2005;30:724–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Cottrell EC, Ozanne SE. Developmental programming of energy balance and the metabolic syndrome. Proc Nutr Soc. 2007;66:198–206.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Duman EA, Atesyakar N, Ecevitoglu A. Multilevel impact of prenatal risk and protective factors on stress biology and infant development: study protocol of BABIP prospective birth cohort from Turkey. Brain Behav Immun Health. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbih.2019.100005.

  28. Spallek J, Grosser A, Höller-Holtrichter C, Doyle I-M, Breckenkamp J, Razum O. Early childhood health in Bielefeld, Germany (BaBi study): study protocol of a social-epidemiological birth cohort. BMJ Open. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-018398.

  29. Cohen S, Kamarck T, Mermelstein R. A global measure of perceived stress. J Health Soc Behav. 1983;24:385–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Riediger M, Linden M, Wilms H-U. Die deutsche Version der CES-D als Instrument der gerontologischen Forschung. Z Klin Psychol Psychiatr Psychother. 1998;46:344–64.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Laux L, Glanzmann P, Schaffner P, Spielberger CD. Das State-Trait-Angstinventar: STAI: theoretische Grundlagen und Handanweisung. Weinheim: Beltz-Testgesellschaft; 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Petersen JJ, Paulitsch MA, Guethlin C, Gensichen J, Jahn A. A survey on worries of pregnant women - testing the German version of the Cambridge worry scale. BMC Public Health. 2009;9:490.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Sarason IG, Johnson JH, Siegel JM. Assessing the impact of life changes: development of the life experiences survey. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1978;46:932–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Wingenfeld K, Spitzer C, Mensebach C, Grabe HJ, Hill A, Gast U, et al. Die deutsche Version des Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ): Erste Befunde zu den psychometrischen Kennwerten. Psychother Psychosom Med Psychol. 2010;60:e13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Rammstedt B, Kemper CJ, Klein MC, Beierlein C, Kovaleva A. Big five inventory (BFI-10): Zusammenstellung sozialwissenschaftlicher Items und Skalen. Mannheim: ZIS - GESIS Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences. 2014.

  36. Hahlweg K. Konstruktion und Validierung des Partnerschaftsfragebogens PFB. Z Klin Psychol. 1979;8:17–40.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Sander J, Böcker S. Die deutsche form der relationship assessment scale (RAS): Eine kurze Skala zur Messung der Zufriedenheit in einer Partnerschaft.: [the German version of the relationship assessment scale (RAS): a short scale for measuring satisfaction in a dyadic relationship]. Diagnostica. 1993;39:55–62.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Dinkel A, Balck F. Psychometrische analyse der deutschen dyadic adjustment scale. J Psychol. 2006;214:1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Scholaske L, Rodriguez N, Sari NE, Spallek J, Ziegler M, Entringer E. The German version of the Multidimensional Acculturative Stress Inventory (MASI) for Turkish-Origin immigrants – measurement invariance of filter questions and validation In press.

  40. TNS Infratest Sozialforschung. Erhebungsinstrumente des IAB-SOEP-Migrationssamples 2013: Integrierter Personen-Biografiefragebogen, Haushaltsfragebogen, SOEP Survey Papers 180: series a- survey instruments. Berlin; 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Jack M. FERUS Fragebogen zur Erfassung von Ressourcen und Selbstmanagementfähigkeiten. 1st ed. Göttingen: Hogrefe Verlag für Psychologie; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Duschek S, Schandry R, Hege B. Soziale Aktivität Selbstbeurteilungs-Skala: Diagnostik sozialer Funktionsfähigkeit bei depressiven Störungen; SASS; Manual. Göttingen: Beltz Test; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Cox JL, Holden JM, Sagovsky R. Detection of postnatal depression. Development of the 10-item Edinburgh postnatal depression scale. Br J Psychiatry. 1987;150:782–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Brockington IF, Oates J, George S, Turner D, Vostanis P, Sullivan M, et al. A screening questionnaire for mother-infant bonding disorders. Arch Womens Ment Health. 2001;3:133–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Haftenberger M, Heuer T, Heidemann C, Kube F, Krems C, Mensink GBM. Relative validation of a food frequency questionnaire for national health and nutrition monitoring. Nutr J. 2010;9:36.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Hobel CJ, Dunkel-Schetter C, Roesch SC, Castro LC, Arora CP. Maternal plasma corticotropin-releasing hormone associated with stress at 20 weeks’ gestation in pregnancies ending in preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1999;180:257–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Wadhwa PD, Sandman CA, Garite TJ. The neurobiology of stress in human pregnancy: implications for prematurity and development of the fetal central nervous system. Prog Brain Res. 2001;133:131–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. 1st ed. New York: Academic Press; 1969.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Scholaske L, Lindner-Matthes D, Kurt M, Duman E, Sahbaz C, Spallek J, Entringer S. Intergenerational transmission of health disparities among Turkish-origin residents in Germany: role of maternal stress and stress biology during pregnancy. A study protocol. Eur J Pub Health. 2018;28:126.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Kurt M, Karaboycheva G, Entringer S, Spallek J. Einfluss des türkischen Migrationshintergrunds auf das subjektive Stressempfinden in der Schwangerschaft - Eine qualitative Studie mit Schwangeren und Müttern türkischer Herkunft. Annual conference of the German Society for Medical Sociology (DGMS) and the German Society for Medical Psychologie (DGMP): 28–30 September 2016. Berlin.

  51. Spallek J, Zeeb H, Razum O. What do we have to know from migrants’ past exposures to understand their health status? A life course approach. Emerg Themes Epidemiol. 2011;8:6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the support of gynecologists, midwifes, hospitals, doctors and nurses in the clinics, in the cities of Bielefeld and Berlin. We thank all families who participated in the study as well as the study team. The authors thank the principal investigators (Jacob Spallek, Oliver Razum, Angelique Grosser, and Celine Miani) and the study team (Renata Hoffmann, Jürgen Breckenkamp, Emine Ergin-Akkoyun, Chantal Höller-Holtrichter, Ina Doyle) of the BaBi birth cohort, who supported the recruitment of study participants with their experience and the infrastructure of the BaBi-study.

Funding

BaBi-Stress and BaBeK study are funded by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, grant numbers SP 1495/3–1, EN 851/2–1). The funding body had no influence on the design of the study, the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data and in writing the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Public Health, Brandenburg University of Technology, Universitätsplatz 1, 01968, Senftenberg, Germany

    Jacob Spallek, Medlin Kurt & Denise Lindner-Matthes

  2. Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health (BIH), Institute for Medical Psychology, Luisenstr. 57, Berlin, 10117, Germany

    Laura Scholaske & Sonja Entringer

  3. Department of Epidemiology and International Public Health, School of Public Health, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany

    Medlin Kurt

  4. Development, Health and Disease Research Program, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA

    Sonja Entringer

Authors
  1. Jacob Spallek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Laura Scholaske
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Medlin Kurt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Denise Lindner-Matthes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Sonja Entringer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

JS and SE designed the study, obtained study funding and are the PIs of the multi-centric cohort. JS & MK coordinated the study in Bielefeld, SE & LS coordinated the study in Berlin. MK, LS, and DLM participated in recruitment of women and analysis of samples. All authors participated in all aspects of data analysis. JS wrote the first draft of the manuscript, which was then revised by all authors. All authors have read and approved the final version.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jacob Spallek.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

BaBi-Stress and BaBeK study were approved by the Ethics Board of the German Psychological Society and the Ethics Committee of the Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin. Data are pseudonymised and all analyses will be conducted with fully anonymized data sets. Data protection of BaBi-Stress study was approved by Data Protection Board of Bielefeld University and Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin.

Consent to participate was given by all participants based on written study information and signed consent form before inclusion in the study. All participants are informed that they can withdraw their consent at any time. Study information and consent form are available in German and Turkish language.

Consent for publication

N.A. (No individual data, images or material presented).

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Spallek, J., Scholaske, L., Kurt, M. et al. Intergenerational transmission of health disparities among Turkish-origin immigrants in Germany: study protocol of a multi-centric cohort study (BaBi-stress and BaBeK study). BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 20, 158 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-020-2853-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-020-2853-y

Keywords

BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth

ISSN: 1471-2393

Contact us