The government of Nepal has made considerable progress in its efforts to promote safe motherhood. For instance, between 2006 and 2011 there was a 36% increase in the provision of antenatal care (from 44 to 60% of all pregnant women); and a 94% increase in the rate of facility-based births (from 18 to 35% of all births) [1, 2]. However, an estimated two-thirds of women still give birth at home with no skilled birth attendant present and maternal mortality, despite recent declines, remains high. The most recent maternal mortality ratio was estimated to be 281 per 100,000 live births [1], about 25% of which has been attributed to postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) [3, 4].

To assess knowledge, receipt and use of advance misoprostol, household interviews were conducted with 2070 women who had given birth within the past 12 months (recently delivered women) (690 per each of the country’s three ecological regions comprised of mountain, hill and terai/flatland terrain). Trained interviewers approached a total of 21,767 households to screen for eligibility. If the woman was deemed eligible and gave verbal consent to participate, the interviewer asked a series of questions about demographic characteristics; use of antenatal and delivery services; and knowledge, receipt and use of misoprostol for PPH prevention. Each interview took approximately 20 min to complete.

To assess the supply and provision of misoprostol, interviews were conducted with 270 FCHVs (90 per ecological region) and staff at 99 government health facilities (33 per ecological region). Trained interviewers asked FCHVs about their knowledge of misoprostol for PPH prevention, current and recent misoprostol stock, program training and supervision, and how to improve the PPH prevention program. Trained interviewers also administered surveys to the focal person of the PPH prevention program within each health facility. Survey items included questions about PPH prevention practices and drugs; availability, storage and supply of uterotonics; and suggestions for improving the PPH prevention program.

Data were collected between May 2013 and August 2013 by 30 female interviewers and 10 field supervisors. For the household interviews, the field staff was divided into ten teams, each comprised of three female interviewers and one supervisor. The interviews with FCHVs and the health facility staff were conducted by the field supervisors. All field staff received a one-week training prior to the start of field mobilization. Review of completed data collection forms and data entry were carried out by New ERA in Nepal.

The primary variable of interest was advance receipt of misoprostol for PPH prevention among recently delivered women. Receipt was defined as having received advance misoprostol from an FCHV or other health provider for the purpose of PPH prevention during a home birth. Using evidence from previous district-level studies, we hypothesized that receipt of advance misoprostol would differ by ecological region, with prevalence of 37% in the mountain region, 47% in the hill region, and 57% in the terai region [9–11]. We calculated an adjusted alpha for all three ecological regions using Bonferroni correction and assuming an inter-group correlation of 0.50. The sample requirements for binomial differences in proportions were calculated using α = 0.0289 and β = 0.80 for all groups. Since we desired equal sample sizes, we chose the highest sample requirement. We assumed a design effect of 1.50, resulting in a final minimum sample requirement of 2052 (684 per ecological region).

Selection of the household interview sample was carried out using a three-stage cluster design. In the first stage, nine districts were selected purposively from the 27 districts in which the advance distribution program had been fully implemented at the time of the evaluation, in order to ensure fair representation of all ecological and development regions. Three districts were chosen from each of the country’s three ecological regions (mountain, hill and terai). Next, 30 rural clusters were selected from among the three sample districts in each ecological region using probability proportional to size (PPS) methodology. Only rural clusters were considered since rural areas are the key focus of the advance distribution program, given that home births are highest in rural areas. Finally, within each rural cluster, households were screened until a total of 23 interviews had been completed.

Within each rural cluster, the health facility located in the rural municipality (also known as the village development committee) was included in the facility sample. In addition, the district hospital from each sample district was included. This provided a total of 99 facilities (33 per ecological region). A total of three FCHVs per rural cluster were also recruited for interviews (or if there were more than three FCHVs in a cluster, three were randomly selected). This provided a total of 270 FCHVs (90 per ecological region).

This assessment identified widespread gaps in the supply of misoprostol among FCHVs and within health facilities in all three ecological regions. Given the central importance of misoprostol to the advance distribution program, irregular and/or insufficient supply is a key barrier to program success. Efforts to identify and address logistical and other supply chain constraints are therefore needed as is more consistent and up-to-date monitoring of misoprostol stock throughout the health system. Since birthing centres are primarily responsible for deliveries in rural areas, priority should be given to ensuring sufficient misoprostol supply at these and other sub-district level facilities. In response to preliminary study findings, the government has initiated efforts to identify and address the sources of the misoprostol supply shortages. As an example, the government’s Logistics Management Division is currently piloting a new electronic system that will enable facility-based tracking of health supplies, including misoprostol, at the district level and above. The government has also continued to expand the advance distribution program, which has now been implemented in 42 out of 75 districts country-wide.

Lessons could be learned from the success of the oxytocin component of the PPH Prevention Program in Nepal. In this study, there was a sufficient supply of oxytocin at nearly all health facilities that provide obstetric care. Implementation of the oxytocin program has been underway for many years and has been a collaborative effort of the FHD and various multi-lateral and non-governmental organizations. These are the same entities involved in the advance distribution program and, as a result, comparison of key similarities and differences in program implementation strategies and supply management procedures may be helpful. The program may also benefit from a change made in 2014, in which the distribution of misoprostol was combined with distribution of chlorhexidine for cord care and birth preparedness packages (BPP). All three technologies are now provided by FCHVs in the eighth month of pregnancy, thus potentially boosting commitment to the advance distribution program among FCHVs.

Study findings also suggest a need for improving knowledge of and commitment to the advance distribution program among FCHVs. Discussion with FCHVs after completion of this evaluation revealed confusion about the importance of the advance distribution program given the government’s emphasis on facility births. As part of the push to promote facility births, FCHVs formerly received financial incentives for ensuring that women in their communities delivered in facilities, Hence, at the time of this evaluation, many were likely unaware of the continuing need to provide advance misoprostol. In light of this situation, the importance of the advance distribution program should be stressed to all FCHVs, even when women indicate a preference for facility deliveries. The study findings also revealed some confusion about when to provide advance misoprostol (16% were providing it in the seventh or ninth month instead of the eighth month). In addition, many FCHVs were not providing full information about when and how to use misoprostol, or how to recognize PPH. Refresher trainings or review meetings that emphasize proper counseling and misoprostol provision would likely help. In response to initial information about these findings, the government has also increased its emphasis on refresher trainings for FCHVs.

Another option being considered by the Ministry of Health and Population (MoHP) is the replacement of FCHVs with a new cadre of community providers with more training—auxiliary nurse midwives (ANMs) who could provide antenatal care as well as assist deliveries both in the home and in health facilities. This would likely be more costly and time consuming, however, and following an initial pilot project involving community ANMs in one district, there has been no subsequent effort to expand this idea.

The high rate of institutional delivery, which was 54% overall and 65% in the terai region, is encouraging. This reflects considerable change in a very short period of time, from an estimated 35% of deliveries in the 2011 DHS survey [2]. There has been some concern that advance distribution of misoprostol would deter women from going to facilities, but these data suggest that has not been the case. The findings should also alleviate concerns about diversion of misoprostol for uses other than PPH prevention. There was no evidence that misoprostol was used for any other purpose (including labor induction and abortion). The majority of those who did not use their advance misoprostol returned it after the birth and most others either threw it away or kept it. Another recent study of community-based distribution of misoprostol for PPH prevention obtained similar results [12].

The high use of misoprostol (87%) among those who received it and delivered at home is also encouraging and mirrors findings from other similar studies conducted in Ethiopia, Ghana, Liberia and South Sudan [12–15]. Furthermore, most women reported correct use of misoprostol, underscoring that when given accurate information, women can use misoprostol properly on their own. There is no published data, however, on whether the successful implementation of advance distribution programs in other countries was sustained over time or as the programs were scaled-up. The evaluations published thus far are largely reports from pilot programs or the period during or just after initial program implementation.

Nepal was one of the first countries to implement a community-based advance distribution program and at the time of this assessment, had been involved in scaling the program up for about 5 years. While it is encouraging that the government remains committed to the PPH prevention program and is working to address the gaps identified in this study, future research should examine more closely whether these gaps have been sufficiently addressed as well as the costs and benefits of long-term investment in a program that may only reach a small share of the target population. Information about the long-term status of similar programs in other countries would also be of interest. While the clinical benefits of advance distribution of misoprostol for home births have been established [16] and women appear willing and able to use misoprostol properly, questions remain about the scalability and magnitude of impact of such programs over the long-term.

The findings from this study confirm prior research indicating that women who receive advance misoprostol in the third trimester of pregnancy are largely willing and able to use it correctly for PPH prevention during home-births. At the same time, the supply and personnel challenges identified are key barriers to program success and raise questions about the scalability and magnitude of impact of the advance distribution program over the long-term.