The findings from present study indicated that more than half of women experienced a traumatic delivery. In addition we found that post-partum PTSD was associated with low educational level, premature labor, inadequate prenatal care visits, having complications due to pregnancy, pregnancy intervals less than 2 years, labor duration, and emergency cesarean section.
There are many studies that investigated about post-partum PTSD [3, 26–29]. For instance a study from Australia reported that out of 499 women 5.6% met the DSM-IV criteria for post-partum PTSD 4–6 weeks after birth [3]. Prevalence of post-traumatic stress symptoms after childbirth reported to be varying from 1.5% to 32.1% [26, 27]. However, this study found that 80 women (20%) were suffering from post-partum PTSD. This high prevalence of post-partum PTSD might be explained by the fact that we assessed post-partum PTSD early after delivery. There is evidence that the prevalence of post-partum PTSD usually is high when assessed early after childbirth [3]. Other reasons for this high prevalence of post-partum PTSD might include: the instrument used to measure PTSD, the sample characteristics [5], prevalence of traumatic birth experiences, the way that health care professionals within hospitals treated the women, and finally the high rate of emergency cesarean section.
It has been shown that emergency cesarean section compared to elective cesarean section and normal vaginal delivery was more unpleasant birth experience and also was a risk factor for development of post-partum PTSD [27, 30]. In fact is argued that emergency cesarean section can be an obstetric predictor of the development of post-partum PTSD [3, 16, 30]. In addition it has been shown that the emergency cesarean section was a risk factor for post-partum mental health problems [31]. There is evidence that women who undergo an emergency cesarean section have most negative cognitions and emotional feelings regarding delivery [32].
Unlike the study by Adewuya et al. that did not find any association between socio-demographic factors and post-partum PTSD [16], the findings of current study showed that level of education was a significant contributing factor to the outcome. In fact the results obtained from this study indicated that women with lower educational level were more likely to present with post-partum PTSD. The probability of reduced risk factor for post-partum PTSD in women with higher educational level compared to those with lower level higher was very meaningful (OR 0.15 vs. 1.0 respectively as shown in Table 2). Perhaps this finding is a pointer to the issue of educational inequalities that impacts women’s health and as suggested at first instance it should be recognized and then be eliminated and if not at least be reduced [33].
Duration of labor and complications of pregnancy were found to be associated with post-partum PTSD. Studies showed that the increased medical interventions during labor, more intense pain in the first stage of labor and prolonged labor duration and perinatal complications similarly increase the likelihood of unfavorable birth experiences and consequently resulting in developing post-traumatic stress symptoms [27, 34].
The finding from this study showed that preterm labor was associated with post-partum PTSD. Similarly, studies have reported that the birth of a premature infant was a predictor for the development of post-traumatic stress symptoms [35].
Prenatal care is an essential reproductive health service, and demonstrated that women who regularly see their health care providers during their pregnancy are less likely to expereince serious pregnancy complications [36]. The findings from present study also indicated that the number of prenatal care visits was associated with decreased post-partum PTSD. Perhaps women with increased prenatal care were more likely to receive additional support from health care providers and thus showed less post-partum PTSD. A study reported that reducing the number of antenatal care visits in low-risk pregnancies increases perinatal mortality in low- and middle-income countries [37]. It is argued that antenatal care is a preventive public health intervention designed to promote mother and infant health. However, Adewuya et al. found factors that independently associated with post-partum PTSD included hospital admission due to pregnancy complications, instrumental delivery, and emergency cesarean section, manual removal of placenta and poor maternal experience of control during childbirth [16]. Similarly, Soet et al. suggested that obstetric interventions may play a role in perceiving childbirth as traumatic, but other more personal or subjective factors have a mediating role in the subsequent development of post-traumatic stress symptoms [34].
Although unwanted pregnancy was significant factor in univariate analysis (see Table 1), its effect was diminished in the presence of other factors when performing forward conditional regression analysis. However, it has been suggested that unwanted pregnancy might be due to low-level health literacy, inappropriate contraception use, predominant male power, and even experience of traumatic events such as sexual abuse, or rape. As the result, it is obvious that in such situations post-partum PTSD would be expected and this is why we think empowering women should be a priority for public health interventions. Unfortunately we did not collect data on these and it would be helpful to consider such information in future studies.
In general, both fathers and mothers might be affected by a traumatic childbirth, but mothers are more vulnerable to PTSD, especially those who are unprivileged. Unfortunately in developing countries, there are few supporting services for women who exposed to a traumatic childbirth [38], although in some Muslim countries such as Iran family-based supports exist and women, to a large extent, are relying on such a support system and not official supporting services.
Limitations
This study had some limitations. Firstly, this was a cross-sectional study and thus the results should be interpreted with caution. Secondly, we only included demographic and obstetric and perinatal factors in the analysis, while post-partum PTSD symptoms may occur among women who have experienced a history of trauma regarding other factors including locus of control, perceptions of the mother-child relationship, partner attachment and perception of partner support. Also we obtained our sample from public health services, thereby excluding women who did not use any healthcare facilities. Finally, since women from different cultural backgrounds might show different patterns for post-partum PTSD, the results from this study could not be generalized to western women or even all women from Iran.
