Table 1 Baseline characteristics for pregnancies included in the secondary analysis

Socio-demographics and maternal characteristics

 Mother age

 < 20 Years

1,037 (35.1%)

346 (14.1%)

528 (12.9%)

1,911 (20.1%)

20–29 Years

1,565 (53.0%)

1,407 (57.4%)

1,958 (47.7%)

4,930 (51.8%)

30–39 Years

348 (11.8%)

672 (27.4%)

1,386 (33.8%)

2,406 (25.3%)

40–49 Years

5 ( 0.2%)

28 ( 1.1%)

216 ( 5.3%)

249 ( 2.6%)

No Data

0 ( 0.0%)

0 ( 0.0%)

14 ( 0.3%)

14 ( 0.1%)

Mean age of women ± SD

23.5 ± 4.4

26.7 ± 5.2

27.9 ± 6.3

26.2 ± 5.8

 Mother education

No formal education

188 ( 6.4%)

1,284 (52.3%)

552 (13.5%)

2,024 (21.3%)

Primary

1,066 (36.1%)

413 (16.8%)

0 ( 0.0%)

1,479 (15.6%)

Middle

821 (27.8%)

288 (11.7%)

1,439 (35.1%)

2,548 (26.8%)

Secondary

711 (24.1%)

376 (15.3%)

2,034 (49.6%)

3,121 (32.8%)

Graduation or higher

159 ( 5.4%)

92 ( 3.8%)

64 ( 1.6%)

315 ( 3.3%)

No data

10 ( 0.3%)

0 ( 0.0%)

13 ( 0.3%)

23 ( 0.2%)

Mean year of education ± SD

6.6 ± 2.9

3.5 ± 4.2

7.3 ± 3.5

6.1 ± 3.9

 Parity

No previous births

142 ( 4.8%)

151 ( 6.2%)

76 ( 1.9%)

369 ( 3.9%)

1–2 births

1,272 (43.0%)

1,075 (43.8%)

1,098 (26.8%)

3,445 (36.2%)

3–5 births

514 (17.4%)

591 (24.1%)

1,412 (34.4%)

2,517 (26.5%)

 > 5 births

1,023 (34.6%)

636 (25.9%)

1,503 (36.6%)

3,162 (33.2%)

No data

4 ( 0.1%)

0 ( 0.0%)

13 ( 0.3%)

17 ( 0.2%)

 Gravidity

1

973 (32.9%)

468 (19.1%)

717 (17.5%)

2,158 (22.7%)

2

731 (24.7%)

516 (21.0%)

385 ( 9.4%)

1,632 (17.2%)

3

537 (18.2%)

461 (18.8%)

593 (14.5%)

1,591 (16.7%)

 ≥ 4

710 (24.0%)

1,008 (41.1%)

2,394 (58.4%)

4,112 (43.2%)

No data

4 ( 0.1%)

0 ( 0.0%)

13 ( 0.3%)

17 ( 0.2%)

 MUAC (in cm)

Severely malnourished < 21

386 (13.1%)

219 ( 8.9%)

74 ( 1.8%)

679 ( 7.1%)

Moderately malnourished ≥ 21 & < 23

662 (22.4%)

374 (15.2%)

287 ( 7.0%)

1,323 (13.9%)

Normal ≥ 23

908 (30.7%)

1,335 (54.4%)

2,731 (66.6%)

4,974 (52.3%)

No data

999 (33.8%)

525 (21.4%)

1,010 (24.6%)

2,534 (26.6%)

Mean MAUC ± SD

23.0 ± 3.0

25.0 ± 3.8

28.3 ± 4.9

25.9 ± 4.7

 Mother height (cm)

 < 150

1,424 (48.2%)

537 (21.9%)

644 (15.7%)

2,605 (27.4%)

150–164.99

1,512 (51.2%)

1,663 (67.8%)

2,805 (68.4%)

5,980 (62.9%)

 ≥ 165

9 ( 0.3%)

100(4.1%)

201 ( 4.9%)

310( 3.3%)

no data

10 ( 0.3%)

153( 6.2%)

452 (11.0%)

615( 6.5%)

Mean height ± SD

149.6 ± 5.4

153.7 ± 6.4

155.3 ± 6.3

153 ± 6.5

 BMI

Underweight < 18.50

957 (32.4%)

504 (20.6%)

237 ( 5.8%)

1,698 (17.9%)

Normal ≥ 18.50 & < 25.00

1,773 (60.0%)

1,187 (48.4%)

1,948 (47.5%)

4,908 (51.6%)

Overweight ≥ 25.00

161 ( 5.4%)

435 (17.7%)

871 (21.2%)

1,467 (15.4%)

Obese ≥ 30.00

31 ( 1.0%)

171 ( 7.0%)

589 (14.4%)

791 ( 8.3%)

No data

33 ( 1.1%)

156 ( 6.4%)

457 (11.1%)

646 ( 6.8%)

Mean BMI ± SD

20.0 ± 3.1

22.3 ± 4.8

24.7 ± 5.3

22.6 ± 4.9

Smoking & tobacco use

499 (16.9%)

498 (20.3%)

28 ( 0.7%)

1,025 (11.1%)

Exposure to biomass

2,870 (97.2%)

268 (10.9%)

3,461 (89.6%)

6,599 (71.2%)

History of past pregnancies

 Stillbirth

232 ( 7.9%)

153 ( 6.2%)

272 ( 6.6%)

657 ( 6.9%)

 Miscarriage

380 (12.9%)

735 (30.0%)

1,105 (26.9%)

2,220 (23.3%)

 Caesarean section

59 ( 2.0%)

186 ( 7.6%)

106 ( 2.7%)

351 ( 3.8%)

 Preterm birth

125 ( 4.2%)

175 ( 8.8%)

84 ( 2.3%)

384 ( 4.5%)

 Hypertension

6 ( 0.2%)

142 (5.8%)

113 (2.9%)

261 ( 2.8%)

 Diabetes

10 ( 0.3%)

19 ( 0.8%)

20 ( 0.5%)

49 ( 0.5%)

Current pregnancies

 Gender of fetus

Male

1,365 (46.2%)

1,145 (46.7%)

1,911 (46.6%)

4,421 (46.5%)

Female

1,430 (48.4%)

1,080 (44.0%)

1,825 (44.5%)

4,335 (45.6%)

No Data

160 ( 5.4%)

228 ( 9.3%)

366 ( 8.9%)

754 ( 7.9%)

 Place of delivery

Health Facility

1,985(67.2%)

1,634(66.6%)

3,241(79.0%)

6,860(72.1%)

Home

746(25.2%)

708(28.9%)

661(16.1%)

2551(22.2%)

No Data

224(7.6%)

111(4.5%)

200(4.9%)

535(5.6%)

 Mode of delivery

Vaginal

2,509 (84.9%)

1,862 (75.9%)

3,748 (91.4%)

8,119 (85.4%)

Vaginal assisted (e.g., forceps, vacuum)

4 ( 0.1%)

54 ( 2.2%)

10 ( 0.2%)

68 ( 0.7%)

Caesarean section

395 (13.4%)

386 (15.7%)

144 ( 3.5%)

925 ( 9.7%)

No data

47 ( 1.6%)

151 ( 6.2%)

200 ( 4.9%)

398 ( 4.2%)

Severe antepartum infection

49(1.8%)

527(22.8%)

21(0.6%)

597(6.8%)

Severe antepartum hemorrhage

41(1.4%)

288(12.0)

155(3.8)

484(5.1%)

Severe postpartum infection

92 ( 3.4%)

293 (12.7%)

130 ( 3.5%)

515 ( 5.9%)

Severe postpartum hemorrhage

37 ( 1.4%)

32 ( 1.4%)

2,378 (63.9%)

2,447 (27.9%)