Table 3 Summary of body (dis)satisfaction measures used in each study (K = 17) of the meta-analysis, and time points at which data was collected/used. In cases of multiple results, justification of which were chosen and why
Authors | Quality rating | Measures taken | Measure used for analysis | Justification | Data collection point |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Chan et al. (2020) [31] | High | Body dissatisfaction (BD) subscale of EDI (Eating Disorder Inventory; [71]; 4 questions developed for this study | Body Dissatisfaction subscale from EDI | Validated measure, including measuring discontentment with the overall shape and size of 10 body regions. Drive for thinness may not apply during pregnancy as pregnancy contravenes thin ideals | Retrospective measure of 6Â months pre-pregnancy (T0; collected at T1), Trimester 1 (T1)*, Trimester 2 (T2), Trimester 3 (T3)*, Postnatally (6Â weeks postpartum)* (T4) |
Clark and Ogden (1999) [60] | High | Restrained eating subscale of Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire [72]; 8 item version of Body Shape Questionnaire [73] | Body Shape questionnaire | Measures concerned with body image dissatisfaction – more relevant than restrained eating behaviours | Retrospective measure of 3 months pre-pregnancy, Trimester 2, Non-pregnant control asked their average body image over last 7 months |
Crossland et al. (2022) [55] | High | Body Cathexis scale [74]; Body Understanding Measure in Pregnancy Scale (BUMPS; [42] | Body Cathexis scale | BUMPS is only relevant to pregnant women and therefore does not provide a comparison for non-pregnant women | All trimesters mixed to form the pregnant sample (8% in trimester 1, 38% in trimester 2, and 54% in trimester 3), Non-pregnant control |
Davies and Wardle (1994) [57] | High | Drive for thinness (DT) subscale and Body dissatisfaction (BD) subscale of EDI [71]; Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire [72]; Other scales developed for the study | Body Dissatisfaction subscale from EDI | Validated measure, including measuring discontentment with the overall shape and size of 10 body regions. Drive for thinness may not be relevant during pregnancy as pregnancy contravenes thin ideals | 33.4Â weeks gestation, Non-pregnant control |
Duncombe et al. (2008) [56] | Moderate | 4 subscales from Body Attitudes Questionnaire (BAQ; [75]; Contour Drawing Rating scale [76]; Pregnancy figure rating scale ([12]; Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire [72] | BAQ; feeling fat subscale | Contour Drawing Rating scale is images of non-pregnant women so is not relevant as a comparison for pregnant women; likewise Pregnancy figure rating scale is only relevant to pregnancy, not control and is therefore not comparable with the other studies. BAQ is more relevant to pregnancy, for example because the focus is on body satisfaction rather than eating behaviour | Retrospective measure of 3Â months pre-pregnancy tested at T1, 18.5Â weeks (T1), 26.6Â weeks (T2)* 34.5Â weeks (T3)* |
Fuller-Tyszkiewicz et al. (2020) [65] | Moderate | Body Image in Pregnancy Scale (BIPS; [77]; Body Attitudes questionnaire (BAQ; [75] | BIPS: Appearance subscale – overall appearance score from average of 21 appearance ratings, edited for non-pregnant participants to exclude the words ‘ during pregnancy’ from each scale | More relevant to body image foci in pregnancy | Trimester 1, Trimester 2, Trimester 3, Non-pregnant control |
Gough (1988) [64] | High | Drive for thinness (DT) subscale and Body dissatisfaction (BD) subscale of EDI [71] | Body Dissatisfaction subscale from EDI | Validated measure, including measuring discontentment with the overall shape and size of 10 body regions. Drive for thinness may not be relevant during pregnancy as pregnancy contravenes thin ideals | Retrospective measure of 12 months pre-pregnancy, 18–22 weeks Follow up at 34 weeks* |
Harrison et al. (2019) [63] | High | Body Esteem scale for adolescents and adults [78]; EAT-26 Eating attitudes test ([79] | Body Esteem scale for adolescents and adults; general feelings about appearance subscale | Eating attitudes test is less relevant during pregnancy as eating attitudes and behaviours may be in response to body signals (such as nausea or cravings) rather than body attitudes. BESAA includes weight satisfaction, esteem from body and importance of opinions of others, which are all more applicable to pregnancy | 22Â weeks (reported in the qualitative analysis part of the paper), Non-pregnant control |
Inanir et al. (2015) [36] | High | Body Cathexis Scale (BCS; [74]; Rosenburg Self-esteem scale [80] | BCS | BCS measures strength and direction of feeling towards various body parts so closely links with body image dissatisfaction. The meta-analysis does not intend to measure self-esteem; this is a qualitatively different concept | Trimester 1, Trimester 2, Trimester 3, Non-pregnant control |
Lombardo (2001) [61] | High | Multidimensional Body Relations Questionnaire [81] | Appearance evaluation subscale | Most similar to the other rating scales | All trimesters mixed to form the pregnant sample, Non-pregnant control |
Loth et al. (2011) [14] | High | Body Shape Satisfaction Scale [82] | Body Shape Satisfaction Scale | Only one scale was used in this study | Stage of pregnancy not stated, Non-pregnant control |
McCarthy (1998) [70] | High | Multidimensional Body Relations Questionnaire [81] | Appearance evaluation subscale | Most similar to the other rating scales | Trimester 1 (M = 10.5 weeks pregnant)*, Trimester 3 (M = 32 weeks pregnant), Non-pregnant control |
High | Body Appreciation Scale [83]); Rosenburg Self-esteem scale [80]; Eating Attitudes Test-26 [79] | Body Appreciation Scale | The Eating Disorder symptoms scales are not as relevant as the Body Appreciation Scale as this focuses on satisfaction with the body | Trimester 1, Trimester 2, Trimester 3, Non-pregnant control | |
Pascoal et al. (2019) [62] | Moderate | Global Body Dissatisfaction Scale (GBDS) – subscale of Body Attitudes Test [84] | Global Body Dissatisfaction Scale (GBDS) | Only one scale was used in this study | All trimesters mixed to form the pregnant sample (51.3% in trimester 2, 23.1% in trimester 1 and 25.6% in trimester 3), Non-pregnant control |
Pieta et al. (2021) [58] | High | Multidimensional Body Relations Questionnaire [81] | Appearance evaluation subscale | Most similar to the other rating scales in other studies | Stage of pregnancy not stated, Non-pregnant control |
Ruggieri et al. (1979) [59] | Moderate | Body Cathexis Scale [74]) | Body Cathexis Scale | Only one scale was used in this study | Trimester 3, Non-pregnant control |
Skouteris et al. (2005) [12] | High | Body Attitudes questionnaire (BAQ; [75]; Pregnancy Figure Rating Scale (PFRS; [12]; Physical Appearance Comparison Scale (PACS; [15] | Body Attitudes questionnaire (feeling fat subscale) | BAQ is more relevant to pregnancy because the focus is on body satisfaction. PACS is a comparison rather than absolute measurement. PFRS is only relevant to pregnancy, not control and is therefore not comparable with the other studies | Retrospective measure of 3 months pre-pregnancy Early trimester 2 (16–23 weeks) Late trimester 2/early trimester 3 (24–31 weeks) Late trimester 3 (32 + weeks) |