Table 1 Characteristics of women with GDM in lifestyle intervention group and insulin therapy group

 n

616

92

58

58

 Age (years)

29.5 ± 5.0

30.7 ± 4.1

0.125

31.4 ± 6.4

30.7 ± 4.1

0.656

 Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m²)

23.9 ± 4.0

24.8 ± 4.3

0.152

25.1 ± 1.9

24.6 ± 4.3

0.820

Family history of Hypertension

46 (10.0)

10 (11.6)

0.649

8 (13.7)

7 (12.1)

0.724

 Family history of DM

9 (6.3)

8 (25.0)

0.001

4 (6.9)

5 (8.6)

0.624

At the first visit

 SBP (mmHg)

118 ± 11

119 ± 12

0.627

121 ± 10

117 ± 12

0.328

 DBP(mmHg)

71 ± 8

70 ± 7

0.630

69 ± 8

70 ± 7

0.382

 Creatin (μmol/L)

39.65 ± 6.37

40.71 ± 5.82

0.668

53.00 ± 19.03

40.71 ± 5.82

0.326

 UA (mmol/L)

225.65 ± 43.08

236.14 ± 90.23

0.660

266.33 ± 29.73

236.14 ± 90.23

0.597

 eGFR (ml/min/1.73m²)

180.6 ± 31.7

171.2 ± 24.8

0.443

145.4 ± 39.7

170.2 ± 24.8

0.281

 ALT (units/L)

19.0 (13.0 - 34.0)

23.0 (15.0 - 80.0)

0.257

16.0 (11.0 - 70.0)

23.0 (15.0 - 80.0)

0.667

 AST (units/L)

18.5 (15.0 - 22.5)

17.0 (16.0- 20.0)

0.727

26.0 (14.0 - 33.0)

17.0 (16.0 - 20.0)

0.517

At performing OGTT

 OGTT time (week)

25.8 ± 2.9

24.3 ± 4.8

0.042

26.4 ± 4.8

24.3 ± 4.8

0.185

 BMI (kg/m²)

26.5 ± 3.7

27.6 ± 4.4

0.213

27.3 ± 2.0

27.6 ± 4.4

0.802

 SBP (mmHg)

120 ± 12

124 ± 11

0.083

126 ± 11

125 ± 11

0.693

 DBP (mmHg)

69 ± 9

70 ± 8

0.525

74 ± 8

71 ± 10

0.241

 FBG (mmol/L)

4.70 ± 0.73

5.61 ± 1.48

< 0.001

3.75 ± 0.21

5.60 ± 1.48

< 0.001

 1 h BG (mmol/L)

9.64 ± 1.63

11.32 ± 2.20

< 0.001

9.55 ± 1.35

11.32 ± 2.20

0.011

 2 h BG (mmol/L)

8.29 ± 1.55

9.61 ± 2.49

0.002

8.67 ± 0.87

9.61 ± 2.48

0.047

 HbA1c (%)

5.2 ± 0.4

5.6 ± 0.6

< 0.001

5.2 ± 0.3

5.5 ± 0.6

0.027

 HbA1c (mmol/mol)

33

38

33

37

 Area under BG curve

16.14 ± 1.93

18.86 ± 3.80

< 0.001

16.02 ± 1.14

18.86 ± 3.80

0.025

 HOMA - IR^*

2.54 (1.66 - 3.45)

2.30 (1.66 - 3.63)

0.716

1.77 (1.09 - 2.95)

3.00 (1.53 - 3.63)

0.179

 HOMA - β^*

295.85 (162.47 - 663.78)

94.90 (52.05 - 259.19)

< 0.001

331.28 (80.94 - 823.42)

94.90 (52.05 - 259.19)

< 0.001

 CH (mmol/L)

5.50 ± 1.26

5.47 ± 1.30

0.896

5.56 ± 1.44

5.47 ± 1.30

0.832

 TG (mmol/L)

3.18 ± 1.76

3.05 ± 1.82

0.667

2.93 ± 1.30

3.05 ± 1.82

0.845

 HDL (mmol/L)

1.73 ± 0.45

1.67 ± 0.42

0.521

1.58 ± 0.21

1.67 ± 0.42

0.481

 LDL (mmol/L)

2.93 ± 1.04

2.96 ± 1.02

0.897

3.12 ± 0.97

2.95 ± 1.02

0.651

One week before delivery

Delivery time

38.6 ± 1.5

39.1 ± 1.3

0.170

39.0 ± 0.9

39.2 ± 1.3

0.664

intervention time frame (weeks)

12.6 ± 3.1

12.3 ± 1.6

0.628

12.6 ± 4.5

12.3 ± 1.6

0.809

Insulin dose

NA

39 (27 - 56)

NA

39 (27 - 56)

 BMI (kg/m²)

28.4 ± 3.5

30.9 ± 4.5

0.020

28.8 ± 2.2

30.4 ± 4.7

0.030

 SBP (mmHg)

124 ± 13

131 ± 13

0.005

124 ± 9

131 ± 12

0.043

 DBP (mmHg)

74 ± 9

80 ± 8

0.007

71 ± 10

80 ± 11

0.011

 FBG (mmol/L)

4.66 ± 0.33

4.39 ± 0.23

0.912

4.51 ± 0.20

4.82 ± 0.42

0.711

 1 h BG (mmol/L)

7.61 ± 1.09

7.14 ± 1.23

0.175

7.39 ± 1.47

7.50 ± 1.22

0.845

 2 h BG (mmol/L)

6.79 ± 1.22

6.98 ± 1.31

0.614

7.24 ± 1.54

6.73 ± 0.75

0.306

HbA1c (%)

5.4 ± 0.4

5.2 ± 0.6

0.566

5.3 ± 0.4

5.4 ± 1.3

0.699

 HbA1c (mmol/mol)

36

33

34

37

Total GWG (kg)

0.068

0.223

  Adequate

225 (42.1)

12 (16.7)

21 (38.2)

9 (16.7)

  Inadequate

171 (31.3)

24 (33.3)

16 (29.1)

18 (33.3)

  Exceesive

150 (27.5)

36 (50.0)

18 (32.7)

27 (50.0)

Rate of weight gain after OGTT (kg week^-1)

0.345

0.563

  Adequate

84 (28.6)

12 (11.8)

18 (32.7)

16 (30.2)

  Inadequate

72 (24.5)

15 (29.4)

14 (25.5)

6 (11.3)

  Exceesive

138 (46.9)

60 (58.8)

23 (41.8)

31 (58.5)

Gestational hypertension

72 (11.7)

20 (31.0)

0.001

12 (17.2)

26 (38.3)

0.028

 Caesarean section

280 (68.3)

46 (63.9)

0.602

28 (48.3)

32 (56.5)

0.449

 Fetal sex (female)

310 (49.1)

22 (37.9)

0.260

28 (50.9)

21 (37.5)

0.321

 Preterm

14 (4.7)

2 (6.3)

0.779

3 (5.5)

3 (5.3)

0.932

 Newborn weight (g)

3484.5 ± 488.7

3592.1 ± 638.5

0.260

3607.5 ± 392.1

3592.1 ± 638.5

0.938

 Macrosomia

62 (14.3)

10 (15.2)

0.796

9 (16.3)

8 (15.1)

0.901