Table 3 Substances used, by category

Oils

Clove oil [55]

Pakistan

Coconut oil [17, 34, 54, 55]

Bangladesh, Pakistan

Cooking oil (sometimes recycled) [8, 23, 28]

Nepal, Tanzania, Zambia

Mabono (wild fruit) oil [8]

Zambia

Machine/motor oil [8, 34]

Pakistan, Zambia

Mustard oil [10, 17, 34, 36, 54, 55, 57, 58, 62, 66–68]

Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan

Mustard oil with garlic [27]

Bangladesh

Oil (unspecified) [19, 21, 29, 62]

Ghana, India, Nepal, Tanzania

Oil with turmeric [68]

Nepal

Olive oil [13, 25, 34]

Pakistan, Turkey

Palm oil [12, 22]

Haiti, Nigeria

Python oil [8]

Zambia

Vegetable oil [26]

Tanzania

Herbs/spices/plants

Banana stem [24]

Tanzania

Black sesame [13]

Turkey

Burnt nutmeg [22]

Haiti

Cassava [11]

Sierra Leone

Dried roots [26]

Tanzania

Ginger/chewed ginger [27, 54]

Bangladesh

Hellebore [13]

Turkey

Herbs (unspecified) [7–9, 12, 15, 20, 21, 23, 58, 60, 62]

Ghana, India, Nepal, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia

Kijinga (burning wood) [24]

Tanzania

Mukunku (bark of a tree) [8]

Zambia

Mustard with chopped, smashed garlic [17]

Bangladesh

Myrtle [13]

Turkey

Pou plant (juice) [21]

Ghana

Pumpkin flowers (fluid) [23]

Tanzania

Sap [9]

Uganda

Spices (unspecified) [61, 62]

Benin, Nepal

Turmeric/chewed turmeric [10, 27, 32, 34, 54, 55, 63]

Bangladesh, India, Pakistan

Minerals/powders

Antimony [10, 66]

Pakistan

Ash [9, 19, 22, 23, 27, 28, 54, 61, 62, 64, 67, 69]

Bangladesh, Benin, Haiti, India, Nepal, Tanzania, Uganda

Ash from burnt papyrus [7]

Uganda

Bark [26]

Tanzania

Black powder (burnt pumpkin stem) [8, 18]

Zambia

Boric powder [17, 54]

Bangladesh

Brick ash [18]

Zambia

Chalk [12]

Nigeria

Charcoal [8, 22, 24, 26, 37]

Haiti, Nigeria, Tanzania, Zambia

Chular mati (earth from clay oven) [17]

Bangladesh

Clay [61, 64]

Benin, India

Dirt from pounding stick [8]

Zambia

Dust/dust from threshold of home [8, 22, 24, 26]

Haiti, Tanzania, Zambia

Ganda la popoo (dirty door powder from old door) [24]

Tanzania

Green powder (ground dried roots of mweeye plant) [18]

Zambia

Ground sea shell [24]

Tanzania

Mud [8, 62, 67]

Nepal, Zambia

Powder (unspecified) [7, 9, 10, 69]

Pakistan, Uganda

Powder from ground local tree [23]

Tanzania

Powder of papyrus reeds [60]

Uganda

PPF powder (pyriproxyfen pesticide) [24]

Tanzania

Red earth sand [21]

Ghana

Rotten tree powder [13]

Turkey

Salt [12, 61]

Benin, Nigeria

Sandalwood powder [24]

Tanzania

Soil/dirt/sand [12, 19]

Nigeria, Tanzania

Soot/soot from cooking pot [9, 60, 65]

Uganda

White powder [30]

Nigeria

Dung

Animal (unspecified) [65]

Uganda

Animal (unspecified) mixed with leaves [22]

Haiti

Chicken [8, 18]

Zambia

Cow [8]

Zambia

Lizard [69]

Uganda

Water

Hot water [15]

Ghana

Numbati (water that has been used to wash an adult woman’s genitals) [23]

Tanzania

Plain water [7, 28]

Nepal, Uganda

Salty water [9, 20, 69]

Uganda

Soapy water [20]

Uganda

Bodily fluids

Breast milk [8, 18, 19, 23, 62]

Nepal, Tanzania, Zambia

Saliva [7, 9, 12, 24, 26, 57, 60, 62]

Nepal, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda

Food

Banana [8, 9]

Uganda, Zambia

Butter [7, 14, 16, 56]

Ethiopia, Uganda

Chewed rice [54]

Bangladesh

Cream from sour milk [8]

Zambia

Dry coffee [13, 25]

Turkey

Fat and sugared fat [13]

Turkey

Ghee [7, 10, 28, 29, 33, 34, 36, 55, 66]

India, Nepal, Pakistan, Uganda

Ghee mixed with fried onions or mustard oil [33]

Pakistan

Ghee mixed with soot [7]

Uganda

Ground almonds [61]

Benin

Ground shea nuts [21]

Ghana

Matti (crushed apricot seeds) [10]

Pakistan

Onion [7]

Uganda

Wheat flour [10]

Pakistan

Personal care/medical

Alcohol [31]

Egypt

Antibiotic powder [29]

India

Antiseptic ointment [63]

India

Antiseptics (unspecified) [26, 28, 31, 57, 58, 62, 67, 68]

Egypt, India, Nepal, Tanzania

Baby powder/talcum powder [8, 17, 19, 20, 24, 26, 32, 55, 65]

Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia

Cold cream [10

Pakistan

Dettol [10, 52]

Bangladesh, Pakistan

Gentian violet [14]

Ethiopia

Hair lotion [14]

Ethiopia

Herbal medicine (unspecified) [65]

Uganda

Homeopathic medicine (unspecified) [17]

Bangladesh

Iodine [14]

Ethiopia

Kohl/surma (can contain lead and antimony) [31, 34, 36, 55]

Egypt, Pakistan

Medicinal drugs (unspecified) [69]

Uganda

Menthol-containing balm [12]

Nigeria

Methylated spirit [12]

Nigeria

Nebanol ointment [52]

Bangladesh

Ointment (unspecified) [16, 55]

Ethiopia, Pakistan

Petroleum jelly [7–9, 12, 14, 19]

Ethiopia, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia

Savlon [17]

Bangladesh

Shea butter [15, 21]

Ghana

Surgical spirit [7, 9, 15, 20, 26, 69]

Ghana, Tanzania, Uganda

Toothpaste [12, 28, 37]

Nigeria, Nepal

Other

Burnt cloth/burned cotton [13, 22]

Haiti, Turkey

Fish bone [24]

Tanzania

Gamba la koa (shells) [24]

Tanzania

Loma (crushed wasps nest) [8]

Zambia

Tar [25]

Turkey

“Other substances” [15, 56, 58, 62, 67]

Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Nepal

Heat

Burning tip of cord [63]

India

Fire steam [24]

Tanzania

Hot fomentation or shek dewa (dry or moist heat) [12, 15, 17, 27, 30, 37, 54]

Bangladesh, Ghana, Nigeria

Hot knife [24]

Tanzania