Table 1 Prevalence of cracked nipples according to different variables in Poisson regression analysis
From: Prevalence and factors associated with cracked nipples in the first month postpartum
Variables | N (%) | Cracked nipples | First-stage | Second-stage | Third-stage | Fourth-stage | p a |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n (%) | PR (95 % CI) | PR (95 % CI) | PR (95 % CI) | PR (95 % CI) | |||
Mother’s age | |||||||
10–19 years | 235 (18.91) | 79 (19.85) | 1.00 | - | - | - | |
20–29 years | 666 (53.58) | 213 (53.52) | 0.95 (0.76–1.18) | - | - | - | |
30–39 years | 321 (25.82) | 100 (25.13) | 0.99 (0.76–1.30) | - | - | - | |
40–49 years | 21 (1.69) | 6 (1.51) | 0.97 (0.46–2.03) | - | - | - | |
Education level | |||||||
≤ primary school | 445 (35.80) | 117 (29.40) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
≥ secondary school | 798 (64.20) | 281 (70.60) | 1.22 (1.00–1.49) | 1.24 (1.02–1.51) | 1.20 (0.98–1.46) | 1.23 (1.04–1.47) | 0.016 |
Parity | |||||||
Multiparous | 607 (48.83) | 160 (40.20) | 1.00 | - | - | - | |
Primiparous | 636 (51.17) | 238 (59.80) | 1.42 (0.66–3.03) | - | - | - | |
Previous experience with breastfeeding | |||||||
Yes | 589 (47.39) | 155 (38.94) | 1.00 | - | - | - | |
No | 654 (52.61) | 243 (61.06) | 0.92 (0.43–1.98) | - | - | - | |
Skin color | |||||||
Black/brown | 1,013 (81.50) | 322 (80.90) | 1.00 | - | - | - | |
White | 230 (18.50) | 76 (19.10) | 0.97 (0.77–1.22) | - | - | - | |
Family income | |||||||
≥ 1 minimum salary | 592 (47.63) | 209 (52.51) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
< 1 minimum salary | 651 (52.37) | 189 (47.49) | 0.82 (0.68–0.99) | 0.95 (0.77–1.16) | 0.97 (0.79–1.19) | 0.95 (0.78–1.15) | 0.631 |
Living with child’s father | |||||||
Yes | 1,070 (86.08) | 337 (84.67) | 1.00 | - | - | - | |
No | 173 (13.92) | 61 (15.33) | 1.13 (0.90–1.41) | - | - | - | |
Number of prenatal visits | |||||||
≥ 6 visits | 958 (77.07) | 310 (77.89) | - | 1.00 | - | ||
< 6 visits | 285 (22.93) | 88 (22.11) | - | 1.07 (0.87–1.32) | - | ||
Guidance on breastfeeding received during prenatal care | |||||||
Yes | 332 (26.71) | 91 (22.86) | - | 1.00 | - | - | |
No | 911 (73.29) | 307 (77.14) | - | 1.11 (0.91–1.36) | - | - | |
Type of prenatal care | |||||||
Public/publicly funded | 841 (67.66) | 243 (61.06) | - | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
Private | 402 (32.34) | 155 (38.94) | - | 1.34 (1.07–1.69) | 1.15 (0.82–1.60) | 1.03 (0.82–1.30) | 0.760 |
Type of delivery | |||||||
Vaginal | 684 (55.03) | 184 (46.23) | - | - | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
Cesarean section | 559 (44.97) | 214 (53.77) | - | - | 1.31 (1.07–1.61) | 1.33 (1.13–1.57) | 0.001 |
Type of hospital | |||||||
Public/publicly funded | 920 (74.01) | 271 (68.09) | - | - | 1.00 | - | - |
Private | 323 (25.99) | 127 (31.91) | - | - | 0.92 (0.63–1.33) | - | - |
Delivery at Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative-accredited facility | |||||||
Yes | 312 (25.10) | 66 (16.58) | - | - | 1.00 | 1.00 | |
No | 931 (74.90) | 332 (83.42) | - | - | 1.48 (1.09–2.00) | 1.51 (1.15–1.99) | 0.003 |
Breastfeeding within the first hour after delivery | |||||||
Yes | 584 (46.98) | 177 (44.47) | - | - | 1.00 | - | |
No | 659 (53.02) | 221 (55.53) | - | - | 1.06 (0.88–1.27) | - | |
Birth weight | |||||||
≥ 2,500 g | 1,185 (95.33) | 381 (95.73) | - | - | 1.00 | - | |
< 2,500 g | 58 (4.67) | 17 (4.27) | - | - | 0.92 (0.61–1.40) | - | |
Mother gets help with household chores | |||||||
Yes | 940 (75.62) | 304 (76.38) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
No | 303 (24.38) | 94 (23.62) | - | - | - | 1.11 (0.92–1.34) | 0.258 |
Father helps take care of the child | |||||||
Yes | 1,047 (84.23) | 326 (81.91) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
No | 196 (15.77) | 72 (18.09) | - | - | - | 1.15 (0.94–1.42) | 0.168 |
Type of nipple | |||||||
Normal | 1,178 (94.77) | 371 (93.22) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
Flat/inverted/pseudo-inverted | 65 (5.23) | 27 (6.78) | - | - | - | 1.20 (0.90–1.61) | 0.205 |
Fixed schedule to breastfeed at 30 days | |||||||
No | 1,191 (95.82) | 376 (94.47) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
Yes | 52 (4.18) | 22 (5.53) | - | - | - | 1.09 (0.77–1.54) | 0.619 |
Mother knows how to express excess milk at 30 days | |||||||
Yes | 885 (71.20) | 288 (72.36) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
No | 358 (28.80) | 110 (27.64) | - | - | - | 1.02 (0.86–1.21) | 0.752 |
Breastfeeding technique | |||||||
Proper | 1,147 (92.28) | 314 (78.89) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
Poor | 96 (7.72) | 84 (21.11) | - | - | - | 3.18 (2.72–3.72) | 0.000 |
Breast engorgement | |||||||
No | 830 (66.77) | 201 (50.50) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
Yes | 413 (33.23) | 197 (49.50) | - | - | - | 1.70 (1.46–1.99) | 0.000 |
Child’s sex | |||||||
Female | 578 (46.50) | 194 (48.74) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
Male | 665 (53.50) | 204 (51.26) | - | - | - | 0.87 (0.75–1.01) | 0.088 |
Use of a pacifier at 30 days | |||||||
No | 734 (59.05) | 219 (55.03) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
Yes | 509 (40.95) | 179 (44.97) | - | - | - | 0.98 (0.84–1.16) | 0.898 |
Use of a feeding bottle at 30 days | |||||||
No | 1,010 (80.26) | 297 (74.62) | - | - | - | 1.00 | |
Yes | 233 (18.74) | 101 (25.38) | - | - | - | 1.29 (1.06–1.55) | 0.008 |