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Table 2 Bivariate distribution of stillbirths, Women who attended ANC at least once, GMHS (N = 4868)

From: Determinants of stillbirths in Ghana: does quality of antenatal care matter?

 

Cross tabulations

Multilevel logistic regression

 

Unweighted

Weighted

Unweighted

Variable

N

%

%

[95 % C.I]

Unadjusted OR [95 % C.I]

ANC quality score

 7 or less

39

2.1

1.8

[1.2 2.5]

 

 8 or 9

38

1.3

1.3

[0.9 1.8]

0.62* [0.39 0.98]

No. of ANC visits

 1–3 visits

21

2.1

2.1

[1.1 3.2]

 

 Four or more

56

1.4

1.4

[0.9 1.8]

0.66 [0.39 1.11]

Trimester of first ANC visit

 First trimester

40

1.5

1.4

[0.9 1.9]

 

 Second trimester

34

1.7

1.7

[1.1 2.4]

1.14 [0.71 1.82]

 Third trimester

3

1.7

0.8

[−0.1 1.8]

1.1 [0.33 3.65]

Type of ANC facility

 Gov’t hospital or polyclinic

48

2.2

1.9

[1.3 2.5]

 

 Other Gov’t facility

24

1.3

1.4

[0.8 2.0]

0.59* [0.35 0.98]

 Private facility/maternity

5

0.7

0.7

[0.0 1.3]

0.33* [0.13 0.83]

Highest trained ANC provider

 Nurse

52

1.4

1.3

[0.9 1.8]

 

 Doctor

24

2.4

2.3

[1.2 3.3]

1.74* [1.05 2.89]

 All others

1

0.8

0.8

[−0.8 2.3]

0.67 [0.10 5.07]

Reason for seeking ANC

 For checkup

65

1.6

1.5

[1.1 1.9]

 

 For a problem

12

1.5

1.5

[0.6 2.5]

0.9 [0.48 1.69]

Delivery by SBA

 No

17

0.9

0.7

[0.3 1.0]

 

 Yes

60

2.1

2.1

[1.5 2.8]

2.59*** [1.47 4.57]

Delivery assisted by

 Nurse/Midwife

33

1.4

1.6

[0.9 2.3]

 

 Doctor

27

5.5

5.1

[2.9 7.2]

4.15*** [2.43 7.11]

 Other

17

0.8

0.7

[0.3 1.0]

0.56 [0.31 1.03]

Delivery in health facility

 No

18

0.9

0.7

[0.4 1.1]

 

 Yes

59

2.1

2.1

[1.5 2.8]

2.48** [1.43 4.33]

Type of Delivery facility

 Gov’t hospital or polyclinic

48

3.1

3.1

[2.2 4.1]

 

 Other Gov’t facility

6

0.9

1.0

[0.2 1.8]

0.27** [0.11 0.64]

 Private clinic/maternity

5

0.8

0.9

[0.0 1.8]

0.25** [0.10 0.63]

 Home/other/DK

18

0.9

0.7

[0.4 1.1]

0.26*** [0.15 0.46]

Caesarian delivery

 No

62

1.4

1.3

[0.9 1.7]

 

 Yes

15

4.3

4.7

[2.1 7.3]

3.34*** [1.84 6.07]

Forceps delivery

 No

68

1.4

1.4

[1.0 1.8]

 

 Yes

9

9.6

8.0

[2.3 13.8]

7.11*** [3.30 15.3]

Blood transfusion

 No

71

1.5

1.4

[1.0 1.8]

 

 Yes

6

6.5

6.3

[1.1 11.4]

4.68*** [1.90 11.5]

IV Infusion

 No

45

1.2

1.0

[0.7 1.4]

 

 Yes

32

3.1

3.4

[2.0 4.7]

2.75*** [1.71 4.42]

Any intervention

 No

37

1.0

0.9

[0.6 1.2]

 

 Yes

40

3.5

3.8

[2.5 5.1]

3.70*** [2.32 5.90]

Past Stillbirth

 No

63

1.4

1.3

[1.0 1.7]

 

 Yes

14

6.4

5.4

[2.5 8.4]

4.93*** [2.66 9.16]

Past miscarriage

 No

63

1.5

1.5

[1.1 1.9]

 

 Yes

14

1.8

1.7

[0.7 2.8]

1.13 [0.63 2.05]

Past induced abortion

 No

56

1.4

1.3

[0.9 1.7]

 

 Yes

21

2.7

2.5

[1.3 3.7]

1.93* [1.16 3.21]

Pregnancy complication

 No

39

1.0

0.9

[0.6 1.2]

 

 Yes

38

3.6

3.9

[2.4 5.3]

3.70*** [2.33 5.88]

Type of Gestation

 Single pregnancy

66

1.4

1.3

[1.0 1.7]

 

 Multiple pregnancy

11

8.7

8.5

[3.4 13.6]

7.45*** [3.64 15.3]

Sister maternal death

 No

70

1.5

1.4

[1.0 1.8]

 

 Yes

7

8.2

7.7

[1.5 13.9]

6.51*** [2.76 15.3]

Current age in years

 15–19

4

1.7

2.0

[−0.1 4.0]

1.61 [0.62 4.18]

 20–24

10

1.1

1.1

[0.4 1.9]

0.91 [0.44 1.89]

 25–29 (ref)

17

1.5

1.4

[0.7 2.1]

 

 30–34

14

1.3

1.0

[0.4 1.5]

0.82 [0.40 1.66]

 35–39

13

1.5

1.7

[0.6 2.7]

0.92 [0.44 1.90]

 40–49

19

3.0

2.8

[1.4 4.3]

2.16* [1.12 4.15]

Marital status

 Currently married

54

1.5

1.4

[1.0 1.9]

 

 Cohabitating

6

0.9

0.8

[0.1 1.4]

0.58 [0.24 1.37]

 Previously married

5

1.4

1.3

[0.1 2.4]

0.95 [0.37 2.42]

 Never married

12

3.5

3.9

[1.7 6.1]

2.25* [1.17 4.34]

No. of Pregnancies (Gravidity)

 One

10

1.22

1.2

[0.6 2.3]

 

 Two

12

1.48

1.4

[0.8 2.5]

1.22 [0.52 2.88]

 Three

10

1.23

1.2

[0.6 2.1]

1.05 [0.43 2.55]

 Four

8

1.16

1.1

[0.5 2.3]

0.96 [0.37 2.46]

 Five or more

37

2.14

2.1

[1.4 3.0]

1.82 [0.89 3.73]

Education

 None

20

1.3

1.0

[0.4 1.5]

 

 Primary

13

1.2

1.4

[0.6 2.2]

0.99 [0.48 2.04]

 Middle/JSS

35

1.9

1.9

[1.2 2.7]

1.56 [0.88 2.80]

 Secondary/SSS/higher

9

2.2

2.2

[0.4 4.0]

1.81 [0.79 4.13]

Household wealth index

 Poorest

16

1.6

1.6

[0.9 2.8]

 

 Poorer/Middle

22

1.2

1.1

[0.7 1.8]

0.76 [0.39 1.48]

 Rich/Richest

39

2.0

1.9

[1.3 2.7]

1.29 [0.69 2.43]

Setting

 Rural

34

1.1

1.1

[0.7 1.5]

 

 Urban

43

2.3

2.3

[1.5 3.1]

2.05** [1.25 3.36]

Region

 Greater Accra

9

1.5

1.0

[0.3 1.8]

 

 Central

7

1.6

1.3

[0.3 2.3]

1.14 [0.39 3.31]

 Western

1

0.3

0.4

[−0.3 1.1]

0.19 [0.02 1.53]

 Volta

3

0.8

0.8

[−0.1 1.8]

0.54 [0.14 2.13]

 Eastern

17

2.3

2.6

[1.0 4.2]

1.68 [0.70 4.03]

 Ashanti

15

1.8

1.7

[0.7 2.8]

1.3 [0.53 3.18]

 Brong Ahafo

14

2.9

2.8

[1.2 4.5]

2.16 [0.85 5.47]

 Northern

8

1.6

1.3

[0.2 2.4]

1.15 [0.40 3.27]

 Upper East

2

0.7

0.7

[−0.2 1.6]

0.47 [0.09 2.33]

 Upper West

1

0.4

0.4

[−0.4 1.3]

0.3 [0.04 2.55]

Religious affiliation

 Catholic

13

2.0

1.5

[0.5 2.5]

 

 Methodist/Presbyterian

12

1.8

1.6

[0.6 2.6]

0.78 [0.45 1.32]

 Pentecostal/charismatic

21

1.5

1.7

[0.9 2.4]

0.85 [0.42 1.72]

 Other Christian

13

1.6

1.6

[0.7 2.4]

0.47 [0.16 1.40]

 Moslem

14

1.6

1.5

[0.6 2.3]

 

 Traditional/other

4

0.9

0.9

[0.0 1.8]

 

Ethnicity

 Akan

36

1.6

1.6

[1.0 2.2]

 

 Ga/Dangme/Guan

11

2.2

2.1

[0.3 3.9]

1.3 [0.63 2.70]

 Ewe

10

1.6

1.4

[0.4 2.4]

1.01 [0.48 2.13]

 Mole-Dagbani/Hausa

9

1.5

1.4

[0.4 2.5]

0.89 [0.40 2.00]

 Grussi/Gruma

4

0.7

0.7

[0.0 1.4]

0.45 [0.15 1.32]

 Other/4missing

7

1.6

1.8

[0.3 3.2]

1.03 [0.44 2.44]

  

Random effects for null model

Cluster variance

  

0.86* [0.49 1.51]

Number of clusters

400

  

Number of women

4868

  
  1. Notes: OR Odds Ratio. *p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001. The first category for each variable is the reference for the logistic regression unless otherwise specified
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