Table 1 Characteristics of included studies
From: Prenatal risk factors for Tourette Syndrome: a systematic review
Study | Study design | Cases | Controls | Source of cases | Sources of controls | Matching factors | Diagnosis of TS | Data source | Prospective or retrospective collection of data on perinatal events | Risk factors evaluated |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Atladottir 2007 [29] | Cohort study | TS | Non-TS | Danish Medical Birth Registry cohort | Danish Medical Birth Registry cohort | ICD-10 in Psychiatric Registry | Registry | Prospective | Season of birth | |
Atladottir 2007 [29] | Cohort study | TS | Non-TS | Danish Medical Birth Registry cohort | Danish Medical Birth Registry cohort | ICD-10 in Psychiatric Registry | Registry | Prospective | Birth year (1990–1991, 1992–1993, 1994–1995) | |
Bos-Veneman 2010 [27] | Single group cross-sectional; comparison of tic and ADHD severity in those with/without risk factors | TS (62), Chronic motor (12) or vocal (1) tics | - | Psychiatry clinic (60) or TS Association (15) | - | DSM-IV-TR | Parent interview and questionnaire | Retrospective | Pregnancy complications, Delivery complications, First-week postnatal complications, Prenatal smoking exposure, Prenatal alcohol exposure | |
Bos-Veneman 2010 [27] | Single group cross-sectional; comparison of symptom severity in those with/without risk factors and genetic factors | Tic disorders | - | Psychiatry clinic (86) or TS Association (24) | - | DSM-IV-TR | Parent interview and questionnaire | Retrospective | (1) Genetic factors (Dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) and interaction with environmental factors; (2) Pregnancy complications: HT, DM, infections, (pre)eclampsia, psychosocial stress; (3) Delivery complications: meconium-stained amniotic fluid, premature rupture of the membranes, nuchal cord, fetal bradycardia, placenta previa, artificial delivery; (4) Smoking during pregnancy | |
Burd 1999 [11] | Matched Case control (1:5) | TS | Healthy | North Dakota TS registry | North Dakota Health Department Registry | Sex, year of birth, month of birth | DSM-III, DSM-III-R, DSM-IV | Birth certificate data | Prospective | Birth weight, Apgar scores, mother's and father’s age and education, month prenatal care began, number of prenatal visits, gestational age |
Csabi 2008 [12] | Cross-sectional study with matched case control pairs (1:1) | TS | Healthy | Outpatient clinic | Local elementary schools | Sex, age, ethnical origin | DSM-IV | Mehes Scale for evaluation of minor physical anomalies | Prospective | Presence of minor physical anomalies on examination |
Hyde 1992 [25] | Twin study; evaluated differences between twins in presence of TS and tic severity | TS | - | Tourette Syndrome Association | - | Twins | Diagnostic interview | Mother completed questionnaire; confirmation of data through review of medical records where possible (not stated how many this was possible for) | Retrospective | Birth weight (n = 13 pairs), birth order (n = 8 pairs), handedness (n = 7 pairs), medical events and environmental factors (n = 13 pairs) |
Kano 2002 [36] | Family study; probands and first degree relatives | TS | Not stated | First degree relatives | DSM-III | Report from mother | Retrospective | Premature delivery, use of forceps, apnea at birth, cyanosis at birth, slowed heartbeat | ||
Khalifa 2005 [13] | Matched Case control (1:1) | TS | Healthy | Total population of children in a town in central Sweden | Total population of children in a town in central Sweden | Sex, age, school | DSM-IV | Interview with parents and medical record review | Retrospective | reduced optimality in the pre-, peri-, and neonatal periods (modified Prechtl's non-optimal score) |
Matched Case control (1:5) | TS | Healthy | North Dakota TS registry | North Dakota Health Department Registry | Sex, year of birth, month of birth | Not stated | Birth certificate data | Prospective | Birth weight, Apgar scores, mother's and father’s age and education, month prenatal care began, number of prenatal visits, gestational age, number of child malformations | |
Kondo 1992 [15] | Case control | TS | Duchenne dystrophy | Neurology Outpatient Clinic | Other hospitals | None stated | Not stated | Patient and mother interview | Retrospective | Prenatal, perinatal and developmental history |
Leckman 1990 [24] | Single group cross-sectional; comparison of tics severity in those with/without risk factors | TS | - | TS Specialty Clinic | - | DSM-III | Interview with mother; confirmation with obstetric records in 61% | Retrospective | 41-item Obstetric Complications Scale (OCS), Perinatal complication scale (PCS), Level of Stress severity, Coping Ability Scale, 41-item Life Stress `Scale (LSS) | |
Leckman 1987 [16] | Twin study | Monozygotic twins disconcordant for TS | Unaffected twin | Not stated | Twins | Not stated | Parental interview | Retrospective | Birth weight | |
Mathews 2006 [26] | Single group cross-sectional; comparison of tics severity in those with/without risk factors | TS | - | TS specialty clinics; TS Association; Health care professionals, media advertisements, schools | - | DSM-IV | Parental interview | Retrospective | Prenatal problems, perinatal problems, and in utero medication exposure (details in the article) | |
Motlagh 2010 [17] | Case control | TS, TS + ADHD | Healthy | TS specialty clinic and TS Association | Telemarketing lists | Age, ZIP codes | DSM-IV | Maternal interview | Retrospective | Prenatal, obstetric, medical risk factors, life circumstances during pregnancy, birth weight, perinatal adverse events |
Pasamanick 1956 [18] | Matched Case control (1:1) | Children with tics | Healthy | Child Psychiatry clinic | Birth register of the Bureau of Vital Records of the Baltimore City Health Department | Same place of birth, race, sex, maternal age group | Not stated | Hospital medical record of birth | Prospective | Pregnancy history, length of labour, complications of pregnancy and delivery, birth weight, condition of child during neonatal period |
Saccomani 2005 [23] | Case control | TS, chronic tics | Healthy | Outpatient clinic | Offspring of hospital personnel | None stated | DSM-IV-TR | Parental interview | Retrospective | Definition of pre- and perinatal events: threatened miscarriage, prematurity, prolonged labour, umbilical cord around the neck, forceps delivery, and neonatal jaundice |
Santangelo 1994 [19] | Multiple case group comparison; comparison of presence of comorbid OCD in those with/without risk factors | TS, TS + OCD | TS Association | DSM-III-R | Maternal interview | Retrospective | (1) pregnancy complications, (2) delivery complications, (3) Medications/procedures, and (4) Coffee, cigarettes, alcohol | |||
Shimada 2012 [20] | Case Control | TS | General population data | Psychiatry outpatient clinic | General population database | DSM-IV-TR | Parent interview and questionnaire | Retrospective | Parental age, education level of parents, use of assistive reproduction, birth weight, gestational age | |
Pringsheim 2009 [21] | Nested case–control | TS + ADHD | TS | TS Specialty clinic | TS Specialty clinic | DSM-IV-TR | Parental interview and questionnaire | Retrospective | Maternal smoking, Maternal alcohol exposure, Low BW, Premature, small for GA, Breathing problems at birth, Maternal HT, Operative delivery, prenatal drug use, | |
Iida 1996 [22] | Case control | TS + OCS | TS | Outpatient psychiatry clinic | Outpatient psychiatry clinic | DSM-III-R | Maternal interview | Retrospective | Perinatal complications (postnatal jaundice, cord around neck, breech birth, premature birth) | |
Whitaker 1997 [39] | Prospective cohort study | Low birth weight children | Regional birth cohort of low birth weight children | DSM-III-R | Psychiatric diagnosis assessed at age 6 by structured diagnostic interview | Prospective | This was a prospective cohort study of low birth weight babies who were examined at age 6 for psychiatric disorders including TS. The study examined the relationship between neonatal cranial ultrasound abnormalities in these children and the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders at age 6. |