Table 3 Associations between neonatal mortality and individual and community level determinants

Fixed effect (OR, 95% CI, P-value)

Individual-level determinants

Infant sex

 Male

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

 Female

0.78 (0.51 – 1.19)

0.79 (0.52 – 1.21)

Birth order

 One

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

 Two

---

---

 Three

1.58 (0.79 – 3.17)

1.57 (0.78 – 3.16)

 Four

0.81 (0.33 – 1.99)

0.77 (0.31 – 1.93)

 Five

0.77 (0.25 – 2.42)

0.72 (0.23 – 2.28)

Multiple pregnancy

 Yes

5.30 (2.82 – 9.95)***

5.30 (2.81 – 10.00)***

 No

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

Birth weight

 Small (<2.5 kg)

2.01 (1.23 – 3.29)**

2.01 (1.23 – 3.30)**

 Normal (≥2.5 kg)

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

Maternal factors

 Maternal Age

 15 – 24 years

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

 25 – 34 years

0.74 (0.34 – 1.59)

0.75 (0.34 – 1.64)

 35 – 49 years

0.73 (0.29 – 1.80)

0.74 (0.30 – 1.87)

Maternal education

 No education

0.74 (0.36 – 1.54)

0.88 (0.42 – 1.83)

 Primary

1.02 (0.55 – 1.90)

0.99 (0.53 – 1.84)

 Secondary or higher

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

Maternal occupation

 Unemployed

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

 Manual

1.16 (0.53 – 2.59)

1.24 (0.56 –2.74)

 White collar job

0.80 (0.35 – 1.86)

0.79 (0.34 – 1.81)

Parity

 1

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

 2 – 4

---

---

 ≥ 5

2.52 (1.01 – 6.28)*

2.58 (1.03 – 6.49)*

Birth interval

 < 18 months

3.49 (1.60 – 7.59)**

3.47 (1.60 – 7.57)**

 18 – 36 months

1.22 (0.77 – 1.93)

1.24 (0.56 – 2.74)

 > 36 months

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

Breastfeeding

 Yes

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

 No

133.50 (75.89 – 234.83)***

142.31 (80.19 – 252.54)***

Health seeking behaviour

 Very low (25%)

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

 Low (26-50%)

0.21 (0.13 – 0.36)***

0.21 (0.12 – 0.35)***

 Average (50-75%)

0.26 (0.14 – 0.49)***

0.25 (0.13 – 0.46)***

 High (76-100%)

---

---

Paternal factor

Paternal occupation

 Farming

0.75 (0.37 – 1.57)

0.83 (0.40 – 1.73)

 Manual

0.95 (0.48 – 1.89)

0.93 (0.46 – 1.85)

 White collar job

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

Paternal education

 No education

0.86 (0.43 – 1.70)

0.96 (0.48 – 1.91)

 Primary

0.66 (0.29 – 1.50)

0.62 (0.27 – 1.42)

 Secondary or higher

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

Wealth index

 Poor

0.55 (0.30 – 1.01)

0.75 (0.39 – 1.43)

 Middle

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

 Rich

1.54 (0.75 – 3.13)

1.32 (0.64 – 2.76)

Ethnicity

 Akan

1 (reference)

1 (reference)

 Ga/Guan

0.77 (0.31 – 1.95)

0.86 (0.34 – 2.18)

 Ewe

0.73 (0.33 – 1.62)

0.79 (0.35 – 1.76)

 Mole-dagbani

0.99 (0.49 – 1.99)

1.21 (0.60 – 2.47)

 Grussi/Gruma

1.22 (0.56 – 2.63)

1.59 (0.71 – 3.57)

 Others

0.95 (0.35 – 2.59)

1.14 (0.42 – 3.10)

Community-level determinants

Community socio-economic disadvantage

 Low deprivation

1 (reference)

 Moderate deprivation

2.05 (1.03 – 4.07)*

 High deprivation

3.38 (1.42 – 8.04)**

Random effect

Area Variance

0.235*

1.64 × 10^-13

1.02 × 10^-9

MOR

1.58

1.000000385

1.000030341

ICC (latent variable method)

0.07

4.98 × 10^-14

3.10 × 10^-10

AIC

2281.7392

819.77086

816.31818