Table.1 The characteristics of participants (n = 224)

Age (mean ± SD, year)

30.35 ± 3.69

30.78 ± 0.36

29.83 ± 3.21

0.058

Pre-pregnancy weight (mean ± SD, kg)

53.09 ± 7.30

53.06 ± 6.75

53.14 ± 7.98

0.934

Height (mean ± SD, cm)

159.84 ± 4.43

159 ± 4.17

160.37 ± 4.71

0.108

Pre-pregnancy BMI (mean ± SD, kg/m²)

20.78 ± 2.77

20.87 ± 2.51

20.67 ± 3.08

0.582

Fasting glucose (first trimester, mean ± SD, mmol/L)

4.34 ± 0.41

4.31 ± 0.40

4.38 ± 0.42

0.282

Gestation (mean ± SD)

2.09 (1.14)

2.10 (1.05)

2.08 (1.25)

0.885

Production (median (IQR)) ^*

0.32 (0.52)

0.36 (0.48)

0.27 (0.57)

0.167

Abortion (median (IQR)) ^*

0.77 (0.95)

0.73 (0.84)

0.83 (1.08)

0.471

Ethnicity n (%)

0.753

 Han ethnicity

217 (96.9)

122 (97.6)

95 (96.0)

 Minority

7 (3.1)

3 (2.4)

4 (4.0)

Occupation status n (%)

0.731

 Unemployed

47 (21.0)

25 (20.3)

22 (22.2)

 Employed

175 (78.1)

98 (79.7)

77 (77.8)

 Missing

2 (0.9)

–

–

Education level n (%)

0.965

 Junior high school

3 (1.3)

2 (1.7)

1 (1.0)

 Senior high school

16 (7.1)

9 (7.8)

7 (7.3)

 College

53 (23.7)

28 (24.1)

25 (26.0)

 Bachelor and above

140 (62.5)

77 (66.4)

63 (65.6)

 Missing

12 (5.4)

–

–

Parity n (%)

0.040

 Nulliparous

154 (68.8)

79 (63.7)

75 (76.5)

 Multiparous

68 (30.4)

45 (36.3)

23 (23.5)

 Missing

2 (0.9)

–

–

Elderly primipara (n (%), ≥35 years old)

9 (0.4)

6 (4.8)

3 (3.0)

0.743

Multiple pregnancy n (%)

12 (5.4)

6 (4.8)

6 (6.1)

0.677

PCOS n (%)

2 (0.9)

2 (1.6)

0 (0)

0.505

Pre-pregnancy diabetes n (%)

1 (0.4)

0 (0)

1 (1.0)

0.442

Family history of diabetes n (%)

29 (12.9)

16 (12.8)

13 (13.1)

0.942

History of GDM n (%)

6 (2.7)

4 (3.2)

2 (2.0)

0.587

Family history of hypertension n (%)

31 (13.8)

20 (16.0)

11 (11.1)

0.293

IVF n (%)

14 (6.3)

10 (8.0)

4 (4.0)

0.224