Table 1 Characteristics of included study participants in SBC and GUSTO cohort

Maternal age

29.8 ± 3.7

32.1 ± 4.8

< 0.001

Plasma glucose fasting, mmol/L

4.4 ± 0.4

4.3 ± 0.4

< 0.001

Plasma glucose 1 h, mmol/L

7.6 ± 1.6

NA

NA

Plasma glucose 2 h, mmol/L

6.5 ± 1.4

6.6 ± 1.4

0.143

Pre-pregnancy BMI, kg/m²

21.5 ± 3.2

21.6 ± 3.4

0.637

BMI at early pregnancy, kg/m²

22.5 ± 3.4

22.4 ± 3.7

0.320

Pre-pregnancy weight, kg

56.6 ± 8.7

54.5 ± 9.5

< 0.001

Weight at early pregnancy, kg

59.1 ± 9.4

56.8 ± 10.3

< 0.001

GWG at early pregnancy, kg

2.5 ± 3.2

1.9 ± 2.4

0.001

GWG velocity at early pregnancy, kg/week

0.2 ± 0.2

0.2 ± 0.2

0.911

Height, cm

162.2 ± 4.6

159.1 ± 5.6

< 0.001

Pre-pregnancy BMI (kg/m²)

0.369

<18.5(underweight)

109(14.9 %)

82(13.5 %)

≥ to < 23 (normal)

436(59.4 %)

365(60.2 %)

≥ to < 27.5 (overweight)

154(21.0 %)

118(19.5 %)

≥ (obese)

35(4.8 %)

41(6.8 %)

GWG in early pregnancy (z score)

0.985

<-1

82(11.2 %)

68(11.5 %)

-1 to 1

552(75.6 %)

446(75.2 %)

> 1

96(13.2 %)

79(13.3 %)

Alcohol consumption during pregnancy

2(0.3 %)

21(3.3 %)

< 0.001

Family history of diabetes

62(9.2 %)

165(24.4 %)

< 0.001

Family history of hypertension

225(32.7 %)

279(41.2 %)

0.001

Current or ever smoker

22(3.0 %)

61(9.4 %)

< 0.001

History of GDM in previous pregnancy

3(0.4 %)

22(3.2 %)

< 0.001

Personal history of chronic hypertension

1(0.1 %)

8(1.2 %)

0.017

Parous

84(11.5 %)

316(48.8 %)

< 0.001

Gestational age at delivery, week

39.0 ± 1.5

38.8 ± 1.4

0.002

Male fetus

349(49.7 %)

340(52.6 %)

0.298

Citizenship status

NA

NA

Singapore Citizen born in Singapore

379(56.0 %)

Converted Citizen or permanent resident

298(44.0 %)