Implementation of a performance-based financing scheme in Malawi and resulting externalities on the quality of care of non-incentivized services

Table 4 Distribution of average scores for each outcome variable by implementation group and time point and resulting estimated effect sizes

	Baseline			Midline (Year 1)			Endline (Year 2)			PBF-attributable Effect
	No PBF	Phase 1	Phase 2	No PBF	Phase 1	Phase 2	No PBF	Phase 1	Phase 2	PBF-attributable Effect
	*mean (SD)*	*mean (SD)*	*mean (SD)*	*mean (SD)*	*mean (SD)*	*mean (SD)*	*mean (SD)*	*mean (SD)*	*mean (SD)*	*Effect size (95%-CI)*
ANC Service Readiness ^a *	0.61 (0.15)	0.63 (0.13)	0.80 (0.10)	0.65 (0.24)	0.69 (0.15)	0.67 (0.11)	0.65 (0.14)	0.79 (0.17)	0.71 (0.15)	0.06	(−0.13; 0.07)
ANC Screening Quality ^b
First Visit *	0.29 (0.15)	0.27 (0.12)	0.26 (0.17)	0.34 (0.16)	0.46 (0.15)	0.29 (0.13)	0.41 (0.16)	0.43 (0.16)	0.31 (0.16)	0.07	(−0.01; 0.16)
Follow-up visit	0.19 (0.18)	0.32 (0.23)	0.64 (0.23)	0.49 (0.29)	0.55 (0.25)	0.23 (0.20)	0.38 (0.28)	0.44 (0.24)	0.27 (0.26)	0.13	(−0.35; 0.19)
ANC Prevention Quality ^b
First Visit	0.83 (0.20)	0.68 (0.24)	0.69 (0.27)	0.47 (0.27)	0.61 (0.28)	0.57 (0.29)	0.72 (0.33)	0.65 (0.27)	0.62 (0.27)	0.06	(−0.09; 0.21)
Follow-up visit	0.52 (0.20)	0.52 (0.23)	0.68 (0.13)	0.51 (0.31)	0.49 (0.22)	0.38 (0.24)	0.48 (0.26)	0.50 (0.23)	0.30 (0.30)	0.05	(−0.09; 0.19)
ANC Information & Education Quality ^b	0.48 (0.28)	0.35 (0.25)	0.34 (0.28)	0.47 (0.23)	0.45 (0.23)	0.41 (0.19)	0.47 (0.29)	0.54 (0.29)	0.32 (0.28)	−0.02	(−0.18; 0.13)

CI = confidence interval
^a score computed at facility level; ^b score computed at case level
* Distribution at baseline statistically significantly different between implementation groups (p < 0.05) based on ANOVA

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