GWG, kg | Birth weight, g | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) | Pa | Mean (SD) | Pa | |
Overall participants | 10.3 (4.0) | 3030.8 (408.2) | ||
Maternal age, y | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||
≤ 19 (teenage mother) | 11.9 (4.5)*** | 2994.3 (377.7)** | ||
20–34 (Reference) | 10.5 (4.0) | 3034.1 (401.0) | ||
≥ 35 | 9.6 (3.9)*** | 3021.8 (431.6)*** | ||
BMI categories, kg/m2 | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||
< 18.5 | 10.9 (3.5)*** | 2930.7 (386.3)*** | ||
18.5–24.9 (Reference) | 10.6 (3.7) | 3038.9 (400.2) | ||
≥ 25 | 7.7 (5.3)*** | 3125.2 (461.7)*** | ||
GWG categories | < 0.001 | |||
Inadequate | 4.8 (2.9) | 2858.1 (445.2)*** | ||
Appropriate (Reference) | 9.6 (1.5) | 3009.4 (375.6) | ||
Excessive | 14.1 (2.9) | 3154.7 (387.1)*** | ||
Marital status | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||
Married | 10.2 (4.0) | 3032.7 (408.1) | ||
Single mother | 11.6 (4.5) | 2997.0 (410.9) | ||
Parity | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||
0 (Reference) | 10.7 (4.1) | 2999.0 (409.2) | ||
1 | 10.0 (3.9)*** | 3044.4 (397.6)*** | ||
2 or more | 10.0 (4.0)*** | 3066.9 (421.4)*** | ||
Educational level | < 0.001 | 0.158 | ||
High school or less (Reference) | 10.7 (4.4) | 3030.0 (413.5) | ||
Vocational school/College | 10.2 (3.8)*** | 3029.3 (408.5) | ||
University or higher | 9.8 (3.5)*** | 3035.8 (397.3) | ||
Weight loss methodsb | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||
None (Reference) | 10.2 (3.7) | 3018.8 (405.9) | ||
Healthy method | 10.2 (4.1)** | 3041.5 (409.1)*** | ||
Unhealthy method | 11.5 (4.8)*** | 3026.1 (413.5) | ||
Total energy intake, kcal/d | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||
1st (lowest tertile) | 10.0 (4.1)*** | 3015.4 (408.7)*** | ||
2nd (Reference) | 10.3 (3.9) | 3032.2 (407.5) | ||
3rd | 10.6 (4.0)*** | 3044.8 (408.0)*** | ||
Physical activity, MET-min/d | < 0.001 | 0.004 | ||
1st (lowest tertile) | 10.2 (4.0)*** | 3026.1 (407.9)** | ||
2nd (Reference) | 10.1 (3.9) | 3037.2 (408.2) | ||
3rd | 10.6 (4.1)*** | 3031.3 (407.6) | ||
Smoking | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||
Never smoke (Reference) | 9.8 (3.7) | 3030.3 (404.0) | ||
Quit | 10.9 (4.3)*** | 3046.6 (411.3)*** | ||
Currently smoke | 11.1 (4.7)*** | 2922.0 (420.3)*** | ||
Alcohol | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||
Never drink (Reference) | 10.1 (4.0) | 3024.0 (408.7) | ||
Quit | 10.5 (4.0)*** | 3034.4 (407.6)** | ||
Currently drink | 9.9 (3.9)*** | 3037.0 (410.7)* | ||
Anaemia | 0.015 | < 0.001 | ||
No | 10.3 (4.0) | 3028.2 (408.4) | ||
Yes | 10.4 (3.9) | 3042.4 (408.0) | ||
Hypertension | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||
No | 10.3 (4.0) | 3034.0 (404.9) | ||
Yes | 9.2 (4.7) | 2909.3 (511.6) | ||
Diabetes | < 0.001 | 0.089 | ||
No | 10.3 (4.0) | 3030.7 (407.5) | ||
Yes | 7.4 (5.5) | 3054.3 (488.8) | ||
Previous caesarean delivery | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||
No | 10.4 (4.0) | 3043.1 (409.0) | ||
Yes | 9.6 (4.1) | 2893.5 (372.9) | ||
Nausea and vomiting | < 0.001 | < 0.001 | ||
No | 10.8 (3.9) | 3007.0 (426.0) | ||
Yes | 10.2 (4.0) | 3035.7 (404.0) | ||
Health guidance | 0.613 | < 0.001 | ||
No | 10.3 (3.9) | 3027.6 (404.4) | ||
Yes | 10.3 (4.8) | 3067.5 (425.3) |