Table 1 Clinical and biochemical characteristics of subjects by three different delivery types

    n

4682

5692

2641

 Age, year

28.07 ± 2.60^†,‡

28.72 ± 3.04^†

28.66 ± 3.11^‡

< 0.001^*

 Pre-pregnancy BMI, kg/m²

21.56 ± 2.97^†,‡

22.81 ± 3.54^†

22.62 ± 3.48^‡

< 0.001^*

 Han-nationality

4481 (95.7%)

5404 (94.9%)

2516 (95.3%)

0.186^**

 Weight, kg

57.82 ± 8.68^†,‡

60.67 ± 10.20^†,§

60.09 ± 10.04^‡,§

< 0.001^*

 Height, cm

163.68 ± 4.55^†,‡

162.99 ± 4.82^†

162.88 ± 4.74^‡

< 0.001^*

 Systolic blood pressure, mmHg

104.80 ± 10.38^†,‡

106.24 ± 10.82^†

106.22 ± 11.10^‡

< 0.001^*

 Diastolic blood pressure, mmHg

67.73 ± 7.50^†,‡

68.95 ± 7.83^†

69.00 ± 8.05^‡

< 0.001^*

 Parity ≥1

138 (2.9%)

249 (4.4%)

97 (3.7%)

0.001^**

 Family history of diabetes in first degree relatives

364 (8.3%)

538 (10.0%)

223(9.1%)

0.014^**

 Gestational age at registration, weeks

10.45 ± 2.40^†

10.32 ± 2.31^†

10.39 ± 2.27

0.008^*

 History of caesarean delivery ≥1

5 (0.1%)

193 (3.4%)

64 (2.4%)

< 0.001^**

 Smoke before or during pregnancy

119 (2.5%)

326 (5.7%)

162 (6.1%)

< 0.001^**

 Drink before or during pregnancy

1462 (31.2%)

1818 (31.9%)

846 (32.0%)

0.680^**

 Gestational diabetes mellitus

261 (5.9%)

453(8.4%)

183 (7.4%)

< 0.001^**

 Glucose challenge test, mmol/L

6.49 ± 1.50^†,‡

6.72 ± 1.60^†

6.71 ± 1.56^‡

< 0.001^*

 Weight gain from registration to GCT, kg

7.41 ± 3.02^†,‡

7.81 ± 3.58^†

7.72 ± 3.18^‡

< 0.001^*

 Occupational physical activity

0.347^**

      Low

4022 (86.0%)

4946 (86.9%)

2289 (86.7%)

      Moderate-to-high

656 (14.0%)

743 (13.1%)

351 (13.3%)

 Commuting physical activity(min/day) ^a

0.003^**

      low

4374 (93.6%)

5386 (94.7%)

2513 (95.4%)

      Moderate-to-high

301 (6.4%)

302 (5.3%)

122(4.6%)

 Leisure-time physical activity(min/week)

0.123^**

  0

2477(53.1%)

3074(54.3%)

1474(56.0%)

  0–150

1391 (29.8%)

1657 (29.2%)

716 (27.2%)

   ≥ 150

797 (17.1%)

935 (16.5%)

441 (16.8%)

 Housework physical activity(h/day)

0.007^**

   ≤ 1

3544 (77.6%)

4432 (79.9%)

2008 (77.6%)

   > 1

1022 (22.4%)

1114 (20.1%)

579(22.4%)

 Physical activity during pregnancy ^b

  Low

2454 (52.4%)

3147(55.3%)

1427 (54.0%)

0.014^**

  Moderate-to-high

2228 (47.6%)

2545 (44.7%)

1214 (46.0%)

 Sleep duration during pregnancy(h/day)

0.025^**

   < 7

88 (1.9%)

98 (1.7%)

65(2.5%)

   ≥ 7 to < 9

2067 (44.1%)

2410 (42.3%)

1091 (41.3%)

   ≥ 9

2527 (54.0%)

3184 (55.9%)

1485 (56.2%)

 Sleep quality during pregnancy

0.872^**

  Good

1762 (37.7%)

2161 (38.1%)

990 (37.6%)

  Moderate

2792 (59.8%)

3390 (59.8%)

1583 (60.1%)

  Poor

114 (2.4%)

122(2.2%)

63 (2.4%)

 Gestational age at delivery, weeks

39.09 ± 1.60^†

39.06 ± 1.40^†,§

39.13 ± 1.52^§

< 0.001^*

 Birth weight, kg

3.28 ± 0.42^†,‡

3.46 ± 0.49^†,§

3.40 ± 0.45^‡,§

< 0.001^*

 Neonatal height, cm

50.03 ± 1.67^†,‡

50.21 ± 1.63^†

50.22 ± 1.60^‡

< 0.001^*