Table 2 Characteristics of included studies

Albert et al 2006 [24] (Denmark)

P

PPGP; PGS; symphysiolysis; one-sided sacroiliac syndrome; double-sided sacroiliac syndrome

Self-reported questionnaire, and physical examination of ‘diseased group’ (=with PGP)

1103

1121

History of low back pain, trauma to the back, salpingitis previous year, multipara, oral contraceptive pill, hormone induced pregnancy, years since last pregnancy, weight before pregnancy, smoking, height, BMI, Social group 5 (no education), daily stress level, work satisfaction

Berg et al 1998 [23] (Sweden)

P

Symphysiolysis 20th week, symphysiolysis 30th week, symphysiolysis 35th week

Self-reported questionnaires in 20th, 30th and 35th week gestation

353

509

Parity, occupation

Bjelland et al 2010 [25] (Norway)

P

PGS^b; Severe PGS^b

Self-reported questionnaires (2nd trimester (mean 17.4 weeks, SD 2.8), 3rd trimester (mean 30.6 weeks SD 2))

35,084

40,871

Parity, maternal age, BMI, educational level, previous low back pain, emotional distress, physically demanding work, smoking, prepregnancy physical activity weekly

Bjelland et al 2011 [30] (Norway)

P

PGS^b

Self-reported questionnaires (2nd trimester (mean 17.4 weeks, SD 2.8), 3rd trimester (mean 30.6 weeks SD 2))

34,676

42,297

Age of menarche

Bjelland et al 2013 [28] (Norway)

P

PGS^b

Self-reported questionnaire (one in 2nd and 3rd trimester)

43,593

48,128

Combined oral contraceptive pills, progestin-only contraceptive pills, progestin injections, progestin intrauterine devices (in last year before pregnancy), combined oral contraceptive pills, progestin-only contraceptive pills, cessation of oral contraceptives (in 4 months before pregnancy and at time of being pregnant); Life-time duration of oral combined contraceptive pills, Life-time duration of progestin-only, contraceptive pills

Choratos et al 2015 (Norway)

P

PGS^b

Self-reported questionnaire in week 15, weeks 18–22, and week 30 gestation.

27,492

24,156

Nausea, nausea and vomiting

Denison et al 2009 [44]

(United Kingdom)

R

Symphysis pubis dysfunction

Retrospective analysis of antenatal notes and labour ward records.

Not stated (651 total)

Not stated (651 total)

BMI

Drevin et al 2015 [32] (Sweden)

C

Sacral pain

Drawing of the body to indicate any location of pain and time of onset of such pain. Indicated pain locations with onset before the present pregnancy were excluded.

Not stated (142 total)

Not stated (142 total)

Childhood physical abuse

Eberhard-Gran et al 2008 [36]

(Norway)

C

PGS^b

Self-reported questionnaire (sent to women with at least 1 prior delivery; any time after the delivery).

533

1283

Diabetes, BMI, time since last delivery, age at last delivery, parity

Endresen 1995 [33] (Norway)

C

PPGP^b; PPGP^b that did not cause difficulties with housework; PPGP^b that caused difficulties with housework to some degree; PPGP^b that caused difficulties with housework to large/high degree; PLBP^b; PPGP^b + Often PLBP^b, PPGP^b + Rarely/Never PLBP^b, PLBP^b + “yes” to PPGP^b, PLBP^b + “No” to PPGP^b

Self-administered questionnaire, completed postpartum while on the maternity ward.

2419

2746

Age, number of previous children, low back pain, parity, smoking, weight of newborn, work bending forward, woman’s year of birth, BMI, Strain at work, economic independence, twisting and bending, pelvic pain, education, work above shoulder, sex colleagues, frequent lifts 10-20 kg, permanently employed

Gjestland et al 2013 [26] (Norway)

P

PLPP^b; PPGP^b

Self-reported questionnaire (17–21 and 32 gestation, and 8 weeks and 2 years postpartum)

1700

1782

Exercise frequency

Hakansson et al 1994 [41]

(Sweden)

P

Symphysiolysis

Structured interview

163

246

Manual work

Klemetti et al 2011 [45]

(United Kingdom)

C

Symphysis pubis dysfunction

Self-reported questionnaire (completed postpartum)

Not stated (total 2825)

Not stated (total 2825)

Maternal age, parity

Kovacs et al 2012 [4] (Spain)

C

PLBP; PPGP

Self-reported questionnaire (28 weeks gestation or more) + clinical records

Not stated (1153 total)

Not stated (1153 total)

Smoking quantity, education level, work status, physical activity level, number of previous pregnancies, ≥1 previous instrumented delivery, ≥ 1 previous caesarean, ≥ 1 previous epidural anaesthesia, history of low back pain during previous pregnancy, history of low back pain not related to pregnancy, history of postpartum low back pain, experiencing low back pain around the time when getting pregnant, anxiety, depression, BMI, stage of pregnancy, Depression (BDI-II score), Anxiety (STAI score)

Kumle et al 2004 [37]

(Norway)

C

PPGP^b, PPGP

in 1st pregnancy^b

PPGP in 2nd pregnancy^b, PPGP in 3rd pregnancy^b

Self-reported questionnaire (retrospective questions any time after the birth)

307

1587

Hormonal contraceptive use before first birth, age of menarche, Age at first birth, time elapsed since first birth (per 3 years) (and enrolment in the cohort study), weight of newborn, years of education, smoking during first pregnancy, PPGP^b in first pregnancy, PPGP^b in at least one of the first 2 pregnancies, did not suffer from PPGP^b in the previous 2 pregnancies, PPGP^b in first but not in second pregnancy, PPGP^b not in first but in second pregnancy, PPGP^b both in first and in second pregnancy, hormonal contraceptives before first pregnancy, length of hormonal contraceptives before first pregnancy, progestin-only contraceptives, combined oestrogen progestin contraceptives

Larsen et al 1999 [40] (Denmark)

P

PPGP

Questionnaire at the routine prenatal examinations in week 16, 20, 30, 33, 38, and 40 (obstetrician or midwife) in which women were asked about pelvic pain. Plus, by a rheumatologist; interview, clinical and neurological examination performed to exclude any other cause of pelvic pain. Then interview by an occupational therapist and examination by a physiotherapist.

618

898

Being in work, heavy workloads to carry (> 10 kg), uncomfortable working positions, monotonous work, long walking distance at work, Working in draft and cold, working with chemicals, job satisfaction (positiviely speaking), working parttime, shiftwork, fixed salary, living in a house, more than three rooms in the house, lift at home, stairs more than 10 steps at home, living with or married to partner, children at home, doing more than 50% of the housework, symptom-giving PPGP in mother or sister, exercising regularly (once a week),smoking, primiparous, multiparous, pelvic pain in previous pregnancy, treatment for low back pain by doctor, treatment for low back pain by chiropractor, treatment for low back pain by physiotherapist, untreated low back pain, diseases in the back, bones, or joints, suffering from lower abdominal pain, other diseases, previous low back pain (while not pregnant), previous lower abdominal pain (while not pregnant), parity, weight, age

Lebel et al 2010 [42] (Israel)

R

Symphysiolysis

Reported by the women on admission or retrieved from her medical care files. Data were extracted from the computerized perinatal database of the hospital.

Not stated (80,898 total)

Not stated (80,898 total)

Previous caesarean section, recurrent abortion, mild pre-eclampsia, severe pre-eclampsia, chronic hypertension, diabetes mellitus (total), gestational diabetes mellitus, pregestational diabetes mellitus, premature rupture of membranes (PROM)

Malmqvist et al 2012 [35] (Norway)

R

Moderate to Severe PPGP

Self-reported questionnaire; retrospectively completed after the birth

219

350

Low back pain in previous pregnancies, pelvic girdle pain in previous pregnancies, low back pain in the year before pregnancy, pelvic girdle pain in the year before pregnancy, exercised at least 2–3 times a week before pregnancy, physically heavy work, primiparous, BMI before pregnancy, physical activity before pregnancy

Meucci et al 2020 [34] (Brazil)

C

Posterior PGP and Pubic symphysis pain

Self-reported questionnaire; Venn diagram

1156

1535

Age, smoking, diabetes, depression during pregnancy, number of pregnancies

Morino et al 2014 [46]

(Japan)

P

Hip joint or pubis pain in 2nd trimester, Hip joint or pubis pain in 3rd trimester

Self-reported questionnaires; during 2nd (mean 22.4, SD 2.1 weeks) and 3rd trimester (mean 33.7 weeks, SD 2.1 weeks).

Not stated (355 total)

Not stated (355 total)

BMI

Owe et al 2015 [27] (Norway)

P

PGS^b

Self-reported questionnaires (2nd trimester (mean 17.4 weeks, SD 2.2), 3rd trimester (mean 30.5 weeks SD 1.4))

39,184

0

Exercise frequency, exercise type

Robinson et al 2010 [3, 29] (Norway)

P

PPGP (Disability and pain intensity)

Self-reported questionnaires and clinical examination (blind to the questionnaire data) at time. Follow up in late pregnancy (30 weeks +) with questionnaire.

157

111

Pain location, disability rating index in early pregnancy, pain intensity in early pregnancy

Vangen et al 1999 [39] (Norway)

C

PPGP^b

Hospital records

42

95

Pakistani, Norwegian

Wergeland & Strand 1998 [38] (Norway)

C

Disabling posterior pelvic pain (Posterior PPGP^b); PLBP^b

Self-reported questionnaire postpartum while still in hospital.

1615

1706

Influence on breaks at work, influence on work pace, externally paced work, manual work, lifting heavy loads (10-20 kg), influence on work content, Work with video display terminals, weekly hours of paid work ≥35, Weekly hours of paid work > 40, age, parity, education, partner education, daily smoking, coffee ≤4 cups