Characteristic | Groups | n | M (SD) | Mean Difference (95% CI) | t | df | p | Cohen’s d |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age | ||||||||
 Pregnancy |  |  |  | 0.09 (− 0.30–0.11) | 0.89 | 306 | .37 | 0.12 |
≥ 35 | 56 | 3.79 (0.78) |  |  |  |  |  | |
< 35 | 252 | 3.88 (0.71) |  |  |  |  |  | |
 Postpartum |  |  |  | 0.11 (− 0.35–0.13) | 0.90 | 236 | .37 | 0.14 |
≥ 35 | 46 | 3.65 (0.78) |  |  |  |  |  | |
< 35 | 192 | 3.76 (0.75) |  |  |  |  |  | |
Parity | ||||||||
 Pregnancy |  |  |  | 0.12 (0.08 – − 0.28) | 1.42 | 306 | .16 | 0.17 |
Nulliparous | 125 | 3.94 (0.78) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Multiparous | 183 | 3.82 (0.67) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
 Postpartum |  |  |  | 0.08 (− 0.12–0.27) | 0.76 | 236 | .45 | 0.09 |
Nulliparous | 100 | 3.78 (0.81) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Multiparous | 138 | 3.71 (0.71) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Educationa | ||||||||
 Pregnancy |  |  |  | 0.14 (−0.31–0.03) | 1.61 | 306 | .12 | 0.20 |
Low | 97 | 3.77 (0.69) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
High | 211 | 3.91 (0.73) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
 Postpartum |  |  |  | 0.03 (−0.24–0.18) | 0.29 | 236 | .77 | 0.04 |
Low | 71 | 3.72 (0.74) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
High | 167 | 3.75 (0.76) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Incomeb | ||||||||
 Pregnancy |  |  |  | 0.37 (0.21–0.54) | 4.36 | 276 | <.001 | 0.53 |
High | 160 | 4.02 (0.68) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Low | 118 | 3.64 (0.74) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
 Postpartum |  |  |  | 0.15 (−0.05–0.36) | 1.47 | 214 | .14 | 0.21 |
High | 129 | 3.78 (0.74) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Low | 87 | 3.62 (0.76) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Country of birth | ||||||||
 Pregnancy |  |  |  | 0.11 (−0.07–0.29) | 1.20 | 306 | .23 | 0.15 |
Australia | 223 | 3.90 (0.72) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Other | 85 | 3.79 (0.71) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
 Postpartum |  |  |  | 0.10 (−0.12–0.31) | 0.81 | 236 | .42 | 0.12 |
Australia | 175 | 3.76 (0.76) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Other | 63 | 3.67 (0.72) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Obesityc | ||||||||
 Pregnancy |  |  |  | 0.11 (−0.31–0.09) | 1.11 | 281 | .27 | 0.15 |
Obese | 62 | 3.78 (0.80) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Non-obese | 221 | 3.89 (0.67) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
 Postpartum |  |  |  | 0.09 (−0.33–0.15) | 0.74 | 220 | .46 | 0.10 |
Obese | 51 | 3.66 (0.78) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Non-obese | 171 | 3.74 (0.76) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Mental healthd | ||||||||
 Pregnancye |  |  |  | 0.47 (0.20–0.75) | 3.44 | 50.61e | .001 | 0.61 |
Yes | 43 | 3.46 (0.86) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
No | 265 | 3.93 (0.67) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
 Postpartum |  |  |  | 0.29 (0.02–0.57) | 2.12 | 236 | .04 | 0.36 |
Yes | 34 | 3.49 (0.88) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
No | 204 | 3.78 (0.72) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Gestation | ||||||||
 Pregnancy |  |  |  | 0.08 (−0.14–0.29) | 0.71 | 306 | .48 | 0.11 |
≤ 15 weeks | 52 | 3.80 (0.76) |  |  |  |  |  | |
> 15 weeks | 256 | 3.88 (0.71) |  |  |  |  |  | |
 Postpartum |  |  |  | 0.07 (−0.19–0.33) | 0.52 | 236 | .60 | 0.09 |
≤ 15 weeks | 38 | 3.68 (0.87) |  |  |  |  |  | |
> 15 weeks | 200 | 3.75 (0.73) |  |  |  |  |  | |
Planned pregnancy | ||||||||
 Pregnancye |  |  |  | 0.22 (0.03–0.42) | 2.30 | 138.98e | .02 | 0.30 |
Planned | 214 | 3.93 (0.68) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Unplanned | 87 | 3.71 (0.80) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
 Postpartum |  |  |  | 0.13 (−0.08–0.45) | 1.22 | 235 | .22 | 0.17 |
Planned | 170 | 3.78 (0.74) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Unplanned | 67 | 3.65 (0.77) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Smoker in last 12 months | ||||||||
 Pregnancye |  |  |  | 0.24 (0.46–0.02) | 2.21 | 64.39e | .03 | 0.36 |
Smoker | 52 | 3.61 (0.74) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Non-smoker | 256 | 3.85 (0.58) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
 Postpartum |  |  |  | 0.23 (0.43–0.03) | 2.25 | 236 | .03 | 0.36 |
Smoker | 37 | 3.81 (0.66) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Non-smoker | 201 | 4.03 (0.54) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Pre-pregnancy drug use | ||||||||
 Pregnancy |  |  |  | 0.31 (0.05–0.58) | 2.36 | 306 | .02 | 0.41 |
Drug use | 32 | 3.59 (0.82) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
No drug use | 276 | 3.90 (0.70) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
 Postpartum |  |  |  | 0.15 (−0.48–0.19) | 0.85 | 236 | .40 | 0.22 |
Drug use | 21 | 3.87 (0.61) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
No drug use | 217 | 3.72 (0.76) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Stress in the last 12 months | ||||||||
 Pregnancy |  |  |  | 0.26 (0.08–0.44) | 2.85 | 296 | .01 | 0.36 |
Stress | 81 | 3.69 (0.76) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
No stress | 217 | 3.95 (0.69) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
 Postpartum |  |  |  | 0.08 (−0.13–0.30) | 0.75 | 233 | .45 | 0.11 |
Stress | 65 | 3.69 (0.70) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
No stress | 170 | 3.77 (0.77) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
Previous caesarean | ||||||||
 Pregnancy |  |  |  | 0.11 (−0.14–0.35) | 0.86 | 306 | .39 | 0.14 |
Yes | 39 | 3.78 (0.66) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
No | 269 | 3.88 (0.73) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
 Postpartum |  |  |  | 0.13 (−0.16–0.43) | 0.88 | 236 | .38 | 0.18 |
Yes | 29 | 3.62 (0.67) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â | |
No | 209 | 3.75 (0.76) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â |