Explanatory Variables | Unadjusted | Adjusted |
---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | |
Year of survey | ||
2001 | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.00 (Reference) |
2006 | 0.92 (0.79, 1.08) | 0.98 (0.82, 1.18) |
2011 | 0.70 (0.58, 0.83) | 0.88 (0.73, 1.08) |
2016 | 0.58 (0.48, 0.70) | 0.69 (0.54, 0.86) |
Types of residence | ||
Urban | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Rural | 1.54 (1.27, 1.86) | |
Ecological zone | ||
Terai | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.00 (Reference) |
Hill | 0.91 (0.78, 1.06) | 0.99 (0.84, 1.18) |
Mountain | 1.39 (1.15, 1.68) | 1.37 (1.06, 1.76) |
Socio-economic factor | ||
Wealth index | ||
Rich | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Middle | 1.66 (1.33, 2.08) | |
Poor | 1.53 (1.13, 1.81) | |
Religion | ||
Buddhist | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Hindu | 1.21 (0.89, 1.63) | |
Others including Muslim and Christian | 1.18 (0.80, 1.74) | |
Ethnicity | ||
Brahmin/chettri | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Dalit | 1.45 (1.16, 1.80) | |
Janajati | 1.00 (0.83, 1.22) | |
Madhesi | 1.28 (1.05, 1.57) | |
Mother education | ||
Secondary or higher | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Primary | 1.46 (1.14, 1.86) | |
No education | 1.73 (1.42, 2.11) | |
Mother’s literacy level | ||
Can read part or whole of the sentence | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.00 (Reference) |
Cannot read | 1.51 (1.33, 1.72) | 1.23 (1.05, 1.45) |
Father education | ||
Secondary or higher | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Primary | 1.27 (1.08, 1.50) | |
No education | 1.52 (1.28, 1.81) | |
Mother occupation | ||
Not working | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Agriculture | 1.32 (1.09, 1.59) | |
Non-agriculture | 0.94 (0.68, 1.32) | |
Maternal factor | ||
Mother’s current age (years) | ||
25–49 | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.00 (Reference) |
15–18 | 1.79 (1.32, 2.42) | 2.15 (1.45, 3.18) |
19–24 | 1.19 (1.03, 1.39) | 1.78 (1.47, 2.15) |
Maternal marital status | ||
Not currently married | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Currently married | 1.68 (0.74, 3.82) | |
Birth order and birth interval | ||
2nd/3rd birth order, interval > 2 years | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.00 (Reference) |
1st birth order | 1.86 (1.54, 2.25) | 1.30 (1.04, 1.63) |
2nd/3rd birth order, interval ≤ 2 years | 2.17 (1.72, 2.74) | 1.80 (1.41, 2.31) |
4th or higher birth order, interval > 2 years | 3.79 (3.15, 4.55) | 2.75 (2.20, 3.43) |
4th or higher birth order, interval ≤ 2 years | 2.52 (1.96, 3.25) | 2.56 (1.94, 3.38) |
Environmental factor | ||
Types of drinking water source | ||
Piped water on premises | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Other improved drinking water sources | 1.33 (1.05, 1.69) | |
Unimproved drinking water sources | 1.40 (0.97, 2.00) | |
Surface drinking water sources | 1.68 (1.25, 2.26) | |
Types of sanitation facility | ||
Improved sanitation facilities | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Unimproved sanitation facilities | 1.51 (1.10, 2.07) | |
Open defecation | 1.70 (1.44, 2.01) | |
Types of cooking fuel | ||
Natural gas | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.00 (Reference) |
Biomass energy | 2.11 (1.60, 2.79) | 1.44 (1.09, 1.91) |
Health service factor | ||
Number of antenatal care (ANC) visits | ||
4+ | 1.00 (Reference) | |
(1–3) | 1.29 (1.07, 1.54) | |
No ANC | 1.47 (1.21, 1.80) | |
Number of TT during pregnancy | ||
2 + TT | 1.00 (Reference) | |
1 TT | 1.03 (0.83, 1.29) | |
Never | 1.25 (1.04, 1.50) | |
IFA supplementation during pregnancy | ||
Yes | 1.00 (Reference) | |
No | 1.25 (1.07, 1.47) | |
Place and assistance during delivery | ||
Health facility | 1.00 (Reference) | |
Home delivery with skilled attendants | 1.69 (0.87, 3.31) | |
Home delivery without skilled attendants | 1.23 (1.05, 1.43) | |
Use of contraceptives | ||
Yes | 1.00 (Reference) | 1.00 (Reference) |
No | 2.10 (1.77, 2.51) | 1.79 (1.52, 2.11) |