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Table 4 Unadjusted and adjusted Odd Ratios (OR) for factors associated with extended perinatal mortality in Nepal, 2001–2016 (N = 23,335)

From: Factors associated with perinatal mortality in Nepal: evidence from Nepal demographic and health survey 2001–2016

Explanatory Variables

Unadjusted

Adjusted

OR (95% CI)

OR (95% CI)

Year of survey

 2001

1.00 (Reference)

1.00 (Reference)

 2006

0.92 (0.79, 1.08)

0.98 (0.82, 1.18)

 2011

0.70 (0.58, 0.83)

0.88 (0.73, 1.08)

 2016

0.58 (0.48, 0.70)

0.69 (0.54, 0.86)

Types of residence

 Urban

1.00 (Reference)

 

 Rural

1.54 (1.27, 1.86)

 

Ecological zone

 Terai

1.00 (Reference)

1.00 (Reference)

 Hill

0.91 (0.78, 1.06)

0.99 (0.84, 1.18)

 Mountain

1.39 (1.15, 1.68)

1.37 (1.06, 1.76)

Socio-economic factor

 Wealth index

  Rich

1.00 (Reference)

 

  Middle

1.66 (1.33, 2.08)

 

  Poor

1.53 (1.13, 1.81)

 

 Religion

  Buddhist

1.00 (Reference)

 

  Hindu

1.21 (0.89, 1.63)

 

  Others including Muslim and Christian

1.18 (0.80, 1.74)

 

 Ethnicity

  Brahmin/chettri

1.00 (Reference)

 

  Dalit

1.45 (1.16, 1.80)

 

  Janajati

1.00 (0.83, 1.22)

 

  Madhesi

1.28 (1.05, 1.57)

 

 Mother education

  Secondary or higher

1.00 (Reference)

 

  Primary

1.46 (1.14, 1.86)

 

  No education

1.73 (1.42, 2.11)

 

 Mother’s literacy level

  Can read part or whole of the sentence

1.00 (Reference)

1.00 (Reference)

  Cannot read

1.51 (1.33, 1.72)

1.23 (1.05, 1.45)

 Father education

  Secondary or higher

1.00 (Reference)

 

  Primary

1.27 (1.08, 1.50)

 

  No education

1.52 (1.28, 1.81)

 

 Mother occupation

  Not working

1.00 (Reference)

 

  Agriculture

1.32 (1.09, 1.59)

 

  Non-agriculture

0.94 (0.68, 1.32)

 

Maternal factor

 Mother’s current age (years)

  25–49

1.00 (Reference)

1.00 (Reference)

  15–18

1.79 (1.32, 2.42)

2.15 (1.45, 3.18)

  19–24

1.19 (1.03, 1.39)

1.78 (1.47, 2.15)

 Maternal marital status

  Not currently married

1.00 (Reference)

 

  Currently married

1.68 (0.74, 3.82)

 

 Birth order and birth interval

  2nd/3rd birth order, interval > 2 years

1.00 (Reference)

1.00 (Reference)

  1st birth order

1.86 (1.54, 2.25)

1.30 (1.04, 1.63)

  2nd/3rd birth order, interval ≤ 2 years

2.17 (1.72, 2.74)

1.80 (1.41, 2.31)

  4th or higher birth order, interval > 2 years

3.79 (3.15, 4.55)

2.75 (2.20, 3.43)

  4th or higher birth order, interval ≤ 2 years

2.52 (1.96, 3.25)

2.56 (1.94, 3.38)

Environmental factor

 Types of drinking water source

  Piped water on premises

1.00 (Reference)

 

  Other improved drinking water sources

1.33 (1.05, 1.69)

 

  Unimproved drinking water sources

1.40 (0.97, 2.00)

 

  Surface drinking water sources

1.68 (1.25, 2.26)

 

 Types of sanitation facility

  Improved sanitation facilities

1.00 (Reference)

 

  Unimproved sanitation facilities

1.51 (1.10, 2.07)

 

  Open defecation

1.70 (1.44, 2.01)

 

 Types of cooking fuel

  Natural gas

1.00 (Reference)

1.00 (Reference)

  Biomass energy

2.11 (1.60, 2.79)

1.44 (1.09, 1.91)

Health service factor

 Number of antenatal care (ANC) visits

  4+

1.00 (Reference)

 

   (1–3)

1.29 (1.07, 1.54)

 

  No ANC

1.47 (1.21, 1.80)

 

 Number of TT during pregnancy

  2 + TT

1.00 (Reference)

 

  1 TT

1.03 (0.83, 1.29)

 

  Never

1.25 (1.04, 1.50)

 

 IFA supplementation during pregnancy

  Yes

1.00 (Reference)

 

  No

1.25 (1.07, 1.47)

 

 Place and assistance during delivery

  Health facility

1.00 (Reference)

 

  Home delivery with skilled attendants

1.69 (0.87, 3.31)

 

  Home delivery without skilled attendants

1.23 (1.05, 1.43)

 

 Use of contraceptives

  Yes

1.00 (Reference)

1.00 (Reference)

  No

2.10 (1.77, 2.51)

1.79 (1.52, 2.11)