Table 4 Empirical Validation of the local language versions of the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale in 12 low- and- lower-middle-income countries

Nepal

Nepal et al., (1999) [24]

132/149 postnatal women convenientlyrecruited from the maternity wards of two hospitals (≥2 days post-delivery) located in the Kathmandu. Then followed up after 4 weeks (84.5 % were literate).

Interview

All 132 participants

NM

NM

2 Psychiatrists

DSM-IV of major depression

12/13

68.4

93.8

65

94.6

^aRegmi et al., (2002) [40]

100 postnatal women (2–3 months) conveniently recruited from the post-natal clinic of the university teaching hospital in the Kathmandu. This case-controlled study recruited40 non-child bearing women as controls (mainly nurses & their friends).

Self-reporting

30 postpartum women (all 12 scored ≥ 13 and rest scored ≤12 were randomly selected)

NM

NM

NM

SCID DSM-IV of major depression

100

92.6

41.6

100

India

Patel et al., (2002) [28]

270/297 pregnant (≥30 week) women conveniently recruited from antenatal clinics, and then followed 6–8 weeks after delivery (252), in Goa. Konkani, Marathi, Hindi and English speakers were included for this study. In this state, the female literacy rate is 67 % and 87 % of births are supervised.

Interviewers

Not clear

NM

NM

NM

CIS-R of common mental disorders

11/12

92

85

NM

NM

Fernandes et al. (2010) [29]

194/196 pregnant (32 – 38 weeks) women conveniently recruited from the antenatal clinic of the missionary hospital located in the rural area of Karnataka state. 95.5 % of these women had completed primary education.

Interviewer

All 194

Yes

NM

1 psychologist

MINI DSM-IV of depression (translated)

12/13

100

84.9

52

99

Nigeria

Uwakwe (2003) [30]

225/292 postnatal women conveniently recruited from the maternity ward (≥7 days post-delivery), of a teaching hospital & postnatal clinic.

Self-reported, using English or local-version EPDS.

94.0 % of the participants

NM

NM

Psychiatrist & psychiatric nurse

Diagnostic interview using ICD −10 for mental disorders

8/9^b

75

97

75

97

Adewuya et al., (2006) [31]

182 pregnant women (≥32 weeks) conveniently recruited from the antenatal clinics of 5 health centres, located in a semi-urban town of western Nigeria (15.4 % were illiterate).

Interviewer administered for illiterate women.

86 (all 75 scored ≥ 6 & rest 10 % randomly selected out of those scoring <6)

NM

Yes

2 psychiatrists

MINI DSM-IV of Depression

9/10

86.7

91.5

68

97

Pakistan

Rahman et al., (2005) [39]

541/570 postnatal women (10 to12 weeks) recruited from a rural community of the Rawalpindi sub-district. About 75 % were illiterate.

Interviewers

All 541

Yes

Yes

2 Mental health professionals

SCAN for ICD-10 for depressive disorders (translated & adapted)

9/10^b

81.5

73.1

52.6

NM

Husain et al., (2013) [26]

601/664 postnatal women (0–36 months) recruited from an urban slum in the capital Karachi.

All 601

Yes

Yes

NM

CIS-R, ICD −10^b for depression

13/14^b

79

74

82

70

Mongolia

Pollock et al., (2006) [32]

94/100 women (in reproductive age) conveniently recruited from two specialised psychiatric units (55) & rest from the 3 community based immu1nization clinics in the capital Ulaanbaatar (adult literacy rate near 100 %)

Not clear

All 94

Yes

NM

1 bstetrician-an/gynaecologist, 1 psychologist

CIS-R, ICD-10 for depressive disorders (translated & adapted)

12/13^b

80.9

61.7

67.9

76.3

Bangladesh

Gausia et al., (2007) [25]

100/126 postnatal women \(6–8 weeks) conveniently recruited from a child immunization clinic in Dhaka, 11 % were illiterate.

1 interviewer

All 100

Yes

Yes

1 psychiatrist

SCID DSM-IV of depression

9/10

88.9

86.8

40

98.6

Sri Lanka

Rowel et al., (2008) [37]

465 perinatal women conveniently recruited for this study: of them 265 were pregnant (≥34 weeks) and attending antenatal clinics. The other 204 were postpartum women (≥6 weeks) attending a family planning or child wellbeing clinic (all could read & write).

Not clear

All 465

NM

NM

1 psychiatrist

Diagnostic interview using ICD-10 for mental disorders

8/9

90.7

86.8

NM

NM

89.9

78.9

NM

NM

Ethiopia

Hanlon et al., (2008) [33]

101 postnatal women (median 5 Months) recruited from the Butajra sub-district (rural community)

20 Interviewers

52 participants

NM

NM

Psychiatrists

CPRS DSM-IV of common mental disorders

5/6

76.5

36.1

NM

NM

Tesfaye et al., (2010) [35]

100/102 postnatal women (6 to 14 weeks) conveniently recruited from child immunization and/or postnatal clinics in 2 primary health care centres, located in the peri-urban area of the capital Addis Ababa. 21 % were illiterate.

Interviewers

All 100

Yes

Yes

2 psychiatrists

6/7

78.9

75.3

42.9

93.8

Ghana

Weobong et al., (2009) [38]

160 pregnant women (5–11 week) identified from the database of 1/6 districts where vitamin A trial was implemented.

Interviewers

About half

Yes

Yes

1 psychologist

SCAN for common mental disorders

10/11

78

73

22

97

Zimbabwe

Chibanda et al., (2010) [36]

210/223 postnatal women (6–7 weeks) conveniently recruited from the 2 primary health care centres, located in a peri-urban area of the capital Harare (74 % completed secondary education).

6 interviewers

All 210

Yes

Yes

2 psychiatrists

DSM-IV of major depression

10/11^b

88

87

74

94

Vietnam

Tran et al., (2011) [27]

364/392 perinatal women (199 were ≥ 28 weeks pregnant & rest were 4–6 weeks postpartum) from randomly selected commune health centres in the capital Hanoi. Rural women were recruitedfrom the Ha Nam province.

Interviewers

All 364

Yes

Yes

1 psychiatrist

SCID DSM-IV of depression, generalised anxiety, panic disorders

3/4^b

69.7

72.9

69.7

72

Malawi

Stewart et al., (2013) [34]

224 pregnant women (2nd trimester) conveniently recruited from a rural district hospital. Only Chichewa speakers were recruited for this study.

2 interviewers

92 (all scored ≥9; every other for those scored 6–9 & every fourth scored ≤5)

NM

Yes

1 (NM)

SCID DSM-IV of depressive disorders

4/5^b

68.7

88.2

35.8

97.4