Table 1 Characteristics of participants and association with under-utilization of antenatal care, Timor-Leste

External Environment

Residence

<0.001

 Urban

1351 (24.6)

821 (28.2)

530 (20.2)

 Rural

4544 (75.4)

2490 (71.8)

2054 (79.8)

Predisposing Factors

Socio-demographic

Maternal age (years)

<0.001

 15–19

185 (2.9)

103 (2.8)

82 (3.0)

 20–34

3518 (60.5)

2066 (63.4)

1452 (56.9)

 35–49

2192 (36.6)

1142 (33.8)

1050 (40.1)

Wealth status

<0.001

 Low (lower 40 %)

2512 (39.9)

1141 (31.2)

1371 (50.7)

 Middle (middle 40 %)

2407 (39.3)

1499 (43.0)

908 (34.7)

 High (upper 20 %)

976 (20.8)

671 (25.8)

305 (14.6)

Maternal education

<0.001

 No education

1980 (32.8)

904 (26.6)

1076 (40.5)

 Primary

189 (27.5)

942 (26.9)

747 (28.3)

 Secondary or higher

2226 (39.6)

1465 (46.6)

761 (31.1)

Paternal education

<0.001

 No education

1658 (27.9)

748 (22.2)

910 (35.1)

 Primary

1668 (27.4)

945 (27.5)

723 (27.3)

 Secondary or higher

2558 (44.6)

1613 (50.3)

945 (37.6)

Maternal occupation

<0.001

 No paid work

3536 (61.0)

1965 (59.7)

1571 (62.7)

 Agriculture

1551 (24.5)

813 (23.1)

738 (26.2)

 Paid work (professional, clerical, sales, service, business)

675 (11.9)

445 (14.1)

230 (9.2)

 Paid work (manual)

125 (2.6)

85 (3.1)

40 (1.9)

Religion

0.597

 Roman Catholic

5770 (98.0)

3247 (98.1)

2523 (97.8)

 Others

125 (2.0)

64 (1.9)

61 (2.2)

Maternal final say on her own health care

0.388

 Herself

1391 (23.0)

770 (22.9)

621 (23.2)

 Herself and others

3610 (64.2)

2076 (65.0)

1534 (63.2)

 Others

683 (12.8)

372 (12.1)

311 (13.6)

Birth order

<0.001

 1

853 (14.3)

517 (15.5)

336 (12.9)

 2–3

1655 (29.1)

969 (30.6)

686 (27.2)

 ≥4

3387 (56.6)

1825 (53.9)

1562 (60.0)

Health knowledge

Frequency of watching television

<0.001

 Not at all

3743 (59.9)

1913 (53.0)

1830 (68.4)

 Less than once a week

516 (8.4)

323 (9.2)

193 (7.5)

 At least once a week

1636 (31.7)

1075 (37.9)

561 (24.1)

Enabling Factors

Permission to visit health facility

<0.001

 Big problem

1379 (22.3)

646 (18.2)

733 (27.4)

 Not a big problem

4515 (77.7)

2665 (81.8)

1850 (72.6)

Money to pay for health services

<0.001

 Big problem

2266 (35.1)

1108 (30.1)

1158 (41.2)

 Not a big problem

3629 (64.9)

2203 (69.9)

1426 (58.8)

Distance to health facility

<0.001

 Big problem

3493 (56.0)

1811 (51.1)

1682 (62.1)

 Not a big problem

2400 (44.0)

1498 (48.9)

902 (37.9)

Transportation to go to seek service

<0.001

 Big problem

3625 (61.6)

1892 (57.2)

1734 (67.1)

 Not a big problem

2269 (38.4)

1419 (42.8)

850 (32.9)

Presence of companion

0.002

 Big problem

2594 (42.5)

1361 (40.3)

1233 (45.3)

 Not a big problem

3301 (57.5)

1950 (59.7)

1351 (54.7)

Availability of care by female health workers

0.004

 Big problem

3844 (64.1)

2101 (61.9)

1743 (66.7)

 Not a big problem

2051 (35.9)

1210 (38.1)

841 (33.3)

Need Factors

Pregnancy complications

0.451

 No complication

332 (5.7)

181 (6.0)

151 (5.4)

 With complications

5563 (94.3)

3130 (94.0)

2433 (94.6)

Desire for children

0.993

 Wanted then

5000 (84.4)

2816 (84.4)

2184 (84.3)

 Wanted later

676 (12.3)

376 (12.3)

300 (12.3)

 Unwanted

219 (3.3)

119 (3.3)

100 (3.4)