A Mother | Lean group | Obese group | Obese GDM group | P-value1 | Â |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
  Number of women (n = 44) | 15 | 13 | 16 |  |  |
  Age (year) | 31.1 ± 3.1 | 28.5 ± 4.2 | 32.6 ± 4.8 | 0.040c |  |
  Primiparae (%) [n] | 86.7 [13] | 76.9 [10] | 56.2 [9] | 0.299 |  |
  BMI (kg/m2) before pregnancy | 20.1 (19.5-22.0) | 36.1 (32.2-38.3) | 33.4 (31.1-36.1) | < 0.001a,b |  |
  Gestational weight gain (kg) | 16.8 ± 4.4 | 11.6 ± 5.6 | 12.1 ± 5.8 | 0.022a,b |  |
  Parental history of diabetes (%) [n] | 13.3 [2] | 38.5 [5] | 43.8 [7] | 0.181 |  |
  Duration of pregnancy (days) | 278.2 ± 8.1 | 279.5 ± 8.2 | 271.3 ± 7.0 | 0.012c |  |
Mode of delivery | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â |
  Spontaneous / cesarean section, n | 9/6 | 6/7 | 6/10 | 0.483 |  |
75Â g OGTT (mmol/L) | Â | Â | Â | Â | Â |
  Glucose fasted | 4.22 (3.89-4.39) | 4.33 (4.00-4.63) | 5.11 (4.44-5.56) | < 0.001b,c |  |
  Glucose 1 h | 7.41 ± 0.90 | 7.34 ± 1.42 | 10.85 ± 1.34 | < 0.001b,c |  |
  Glucose 2 h | 6.30 ± 0.96 | 6.49 ± 1.21 | 8.00 ± 1.57 | < 0.001b,c |  |
  Area under curve (AUC) Glucose | 12.54 (11.90-13.24) | 11.85 (11.65-14.10) | 16.37 (16.04-18.13) | < 0.001b,c |  |
Fasted plasma/serum parameters at 3rd trimester | |||||
  Gestational age (weeks) | 33.9 ± 1.4 | 34.3 ± 1.7 | 34.1 ± 1.0 | 0.836 |  |
  Glucose (mmol/L) | 4.10 ± 0.32 | 4.19 ± 0.40 | 4.39 ± 0.28 | 0.161 |  |
  Insulin (μU/mL) | 5.66 (4.76-10.05) | 11.54 (9.28-20.54) | 13.99 (11.22-17.97) | 0.002a,b |  |
  HOMA-IR-index | 1.10 (0.86-1.79) | 2.31 (1.98-4.15) | 2.76 (2.08-3.63) | 0.001a,b |  |
  C-peptide (ng/mL) | 1.60 (1.42-2.23) | 2.99 (2.05-3.51) | 3.01 (2.64-3.14) | 0.002a,b |  |
  HbA1c (%) | 5.32 ± 0.31 | 5.45 ± 0.23 | 5.40 ± 0.28 | 0.474 |  |
  Leptin (ng/mL) | 9.30 (6.52-20.11) | 46.03 (29.84-78.67) | 42.24 (26.71-66.69) | < 0.001a,b |  |
  Total adiponectin (μg/mL) | 4.98 ± 1.02 | 4.14 ± 1.78 | 3.81 ± 1.39 | 0.071 |  |
  HMW adiponectin (μg/mL) | 2.86 ± 0.82 | 2.06 ± 1.17 | 1.74 ± 0.91 | 0.008b |  |
  SA | 0.57 ± 0.1 | 0.48 ± 0.09 | 0.44 ± 0.07 | < 0.001a,b |  |
  Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | 7.49 ± 1.51 | 6.28 ± 0.96 | 6.60 ± 0.96 | 0.035a |  |
  LDL cholesterol (mmol/L) | 4.86 ± 1.50 | 3.73 ± 0.87 | 3.92 ± 1.96 | 0.039 |  |
  HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) | 1.92 ± 0.49 | 1.73 ± 0.45 | 1.88 ± 0.28 | 0.524 |  |
  Triglycerides (mmol/L) | 2.53 ± 0.74 | 2.38 ± 0.57 | 2.76 ± 0.72 | 0.420 |  |
B Infant | Lean group | Obese group | Obese GDM group | P-value 1 | Adjusted p-value 2 |
  Offspring gender (male/female), n | 8/7 | 8/5 | 13/3 | 0.275 |  |
Umbilical cord plasma parameters | |||||
  Glucose (mmol/L) | 4.46 ± 1.13 | 4.42 ± 1.03 | 4.60 ± 1.02 | 0.892 | 0.202 |
  Insulin (μU/mL) | 1.72 (1.08-5.14) | 1.73 (1.33-3.97) | 5.29 (4.21-8.33) | 0.023b,c | 0.014b,c |
  HOMA-IR-index | 0.40 (0.22-1.23) | 0.42 (0.23-0.74) | 1.08 (0.81-1.52) | 0.021b,c | 0.009b,c |
  Leptin (ng/mL) | 5.88 (2.15-9.70) | 7.57 (4.56-16.65) | 6.84 (4.76-11.58) | 0.455 | 0.114 |
  Total adiponectin (μg/mL) | 20.68 ± 6.23 | 20.82 ± 8.56 | 22.03 ± 7.33 | 0.977 | 0.685 |
  HMW adiponectin (μg/mL) | 14.61 ± 5.15 | 14.28 ± 7.02 | 14.75 ± 5.80 | 0.860 | 0.884 |
  SA | 0.70 ± 0.06 | 0.67 ± 0.06 | 0.65 ± 0.08 | 0.292 | 0.348 |
  Total cholesterol (mmol/L) | 1.71 (1.31-1.90) | 1.53 (1.36-1.71) | 1.55 (1.32-1.73) | 0.718 | 0.886 |
  LDL cholesterol (mmol/L) | 0.54 (0.32-0.65) | 0.52 (0.38-0.60) | 0.47 (0.41-0.54) | 0.905 | 0.271 |
  HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) | 0.72 (0.67-1.03) | 0.62 (0.60-0.96) | 0.72 (0.57-0.88) | 0.691 | 0.724 |
  Triglycerides (mmol/L) | 0.35 (0.27-0.52) | 0.35 (0.26-0.45) | 0.40 (0.25-0.46) | 0.959 | 0.847 |
Breastfeeding status at week-6 (month-4), n | |||||
  Exclusively breastfed | 10 (8) | 7 (6) | 6 (4) | 0.257 (0.304) |  |
  Formula and breast milk | 0 (2) | 3 (0) | 4 (4) | ||
  Formula only | 5 (5) | 3 (6) | 4 (6) | ||
  Introduction of solid food (months) | 5.0 (5.0-6.0) | 5.0 (4.0-6.0) | 5.0 (4.0-6.0) | 0.411 |  |