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Table 1 Characterization of study participants

From: Effect of maternal obesity with and without gestational diabetes on offspring subcutaneous and preperitoneal adipose tissue development from birth up to year-1

A Mother

Lean group

Obese group

Obese GDM group

P-value1

 

  Number of women (n = 44)

15

13

16

  

  Age (year)

31.1 ± 3.1

28.5 ± 4.2

32.6 ± 4.8

0.040c

 

  Primiparae (%) [n]

86.7 [13]

76.9 [10]

56.2 [9]

0.299

 

  BMI (kg/m2) before pregnancy

20.1 (19.5-22.0)

36.1 (32.2-38.3)

33.4 (31.1-36.1)

< 0.001a,b

 

  Gestational weight gain (kg)

16.8 ± 4.4

11.6 ± 5.6

12.1 ± 5.8

0.022a,b

 

  Parental history of diabetes (%) [n]

13.3 [2]

38.5 [5]

43.8 [7]

0.181

 

  Duration of pregnancy (days)

278.2 ± 8.1

279.5 ± 8.2

271.3 ± 7.0

0.012c

 

Mode of delivery

     

  Spontaneous / cesarean section, n

9/6

6/7

6/10

0.483

 

75 g OGTT (mmol/L)

     

  Glucose fasted

4.22 (3.89-4.39)

4.33 (4.00-4.63)

5.11 (4.44-5.56)

< 0.001b,c

 

  Glucose 1 h

7.41 ± 0.90

7.34 ± 1.42

10.85 ± 1.34

< 0.001b,c

 

  Glucose 2 h

6.30 ± 0.96

6.49 ± 1.21

8.00 ± 1.57

< 0.001b,c

 

  Area under curve (AUC) Glucose

12.54 (11.90-13.24)

11.85 (11.65-14.10)

16.37 (16.04-18.13)

< 0.001b,c

 

Fasted plasma/serum parameters at 3rd trimester

  Gestational age (weeks)

33.9 ± 1.4

34.3 ± 1.7

34.1 ± 1.0

0.836

 

  Glucose (mmol/L)

4.10 ± 0.32

4.19 ± 0.40

4.39 ± 0.28

0.161

 

  Insulin (μU/mL)

5.66 (4.76-10.05)

11.54 (9.28-20.54)

13.99 (11.22-17.97)

0.002a,b

 

  HOMA-IR-index

1.10 (0.86-1.79)

2.31 (1.98-4.15)

2.76 (2.08-3.63)

0.001a,b

 

  C-peptide (ng/mL)

1.60 (1.42-2.23)

2.99 (2.05-3.51)

3.01 (2.64-3.14)

0.002a,b

 

  HbA1c (%)

5.32 ± 0.31

5.45 ± 0.23

5.40 ± 0.28

0.474

 

  Leptin (ng/mL)

9.30 (6.52-20.11)

46.03 (29.84-78.67)

42.24 (26.71-66.69)

< 0.001a,b

 

  Total adiponectin (μg/mL)

4.98 ± 1.02

4.14 ± 1.78

3.81 ± 1.39

0.071

 

  HMW adiponectin (μg/mL)

2.86 ± 0.82

2.06 ± 1.17

1.74 ± 0.91

0.008b

 

  SA

0.57 ± 0.1

0.48 ± 0.09

0.44 ± 0.07

< 0.001a,b

 

  Total cholesterol (mmol/L)

7.49 ± 1.51

6.28 ± 0.96

6.60 ± 0.96

0.035a

 

  LDL cholesterol (mmol/L)

4.86 ± 1.50

3.73 ± 0.87

3.92 ± 1.96

0.039

 

  HDL cholesterol (mmol/L)

1.92 ± 0.49

1.73 ± 0.45

1.88 ± 0.28

0.524

 

  Triglycerides (mmol/L)

2.53 ± 0.74

2.38 ± 0.57

2.76 ± 0.72

0.420

 

B Infant

Lean group

Obese group

Obese GDM group

P-value 1

Adjusted p-value 2

  Offspring gender (male/female), n

8/7

8/5

13/3

0.275

 

Umbilical cord plasma parameters

  Glucose (mmol/L)

4.46 ± 1.13

4.42 ± 1.03

4.60 ± 1.02

0.892

0.202

  Insulin (μU/mL)

1.72 (1.08-5.14)

1.73 (1.33-3.97)

5.29 (4.21-8.33)

0.023b,c

0.014b,c

  HOMA-IR-index

0.40 (0.22-1.23)

0.42 (0.23-0.74)

1.08 (0.81-1.52)

0.021b,c

0.009b,c

  Leptin (ng/mL)

5.88 (2.15-9.70)

7.57 (4.56-16.65)

6.84 (4.76-11.58)

0.455

0.114

  Total adiponectin (μg/mL)

20.68 ± 6.23

20.82 ± 8.56

22.03 ± 7.33

0.977

0.685

  HMW adiponectin (μg/mL)

14.61 ± 5.15

14.28 ± 7.02

14.75 ± 5.80

0.860

0.884

  SA

0.70 ± 0.06

0.67 ± 0.06

0.65 ± 0.08

0.292

0.348

  Total cholesterol (mmol/L)

1.71 (1.31-1.90)

1.53 (1.36-1.71)

1.55 (1.32-1.73)

0.718

0.886

  LDL cholesterol (mmol/L)

0.54 (0.32-0.65)

0.52 (0.38-0.60)

0.47 (0.41-0.54)

0.905

0.271

  HDL cholesterol (mmol/L)

0.72 (0.67-1.03)

0.62 (0.60-0.96)

0.72 (0.57-0.88)

0.691

0.724

  Triglycerides (mmol/L)

0.35 (0.27-0.52)

0.35 (0.26-0.45)

0.40 (0.25-0.46)

0.959

0.847

Breastfeeding status at week-6 (month-4), n

  Exclusively breastfed

10 (8)

7 (6)

6 (4)

0.257 (0.304)

 

  Formula and breast milk

0 (2)

3 (0)

4 (4)

  Formula only

5 (5)

3 (6)

4 (6)

  Introduction of solid food (months)

5.0 (5.0-6.0)

5.0 (4.0-6.0)

5.0 (4.0-6.0)

0.411

 
  1. HbA1c: hemoglobin A1c; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; HOMA-IR: homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; OGTT: oral glucose tolerance test; SA: HMW-total adiponectin ratio.
  2. Data are presented as mean ± SD; otherwise skewed variables are presented as median followed by interquartile range.
  3. 1One-way ANOVA with Sidak’s post hoc test or nonparametric Kruskal-Wallis-test with Dunn’s post hoc test.
  4. 2Statistical analyses for cord plasma parameters were performed by multiple linear regression models and p-values were adjusted for infant sex and pregnancy duration.
  5. aP-value < 0.05 obese vs. lean group; bp-value < 0.05 obese GDM vs. lean group; cp-value < 0.05 obese GDM vs. obese group.